Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi
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The Mausoleum of Khawaja Ahmed Yasawi (Template:Lang-kz) is an unfinished mausoleum in the city of Turkestan, in southern Kazakhstan. The structure was commissioned in 1389 by Timur, who ruled the area as part of the expansive Timurid Empire,<ref name=timurid /> to replace a smaller 12th-century mausoleum of the famous Turkic poet and Sufi mystic,<ref name=roi>Template:Cite book</ref> Khoja Ahmed Yasawi (1093–1166). However, construction was halted with the death of Timur in 1405.<ref name=whs />
Despite its incomplete state, the mausoleum has survived as one of the best-preserved of all Timurid constructions. Its creation marked the beginning of the Timurid architectural style.<ref name=brittanica2 /> The experimental spatial arrangements, innovative architectural solutions for vault and dome constructions, and ornamentations using glazed tiles made the structure the prototype for this distinctive art, which spread across the empire and beyond.<ref name=whs />
The religious structure continues to draw pilgrims from across Central Asia and has come to epitomize the Kazakh national identity.<ref name=whs /><ref name=hazrat /><ref name=geopolitical /> It has been protected as a national monument, while UNESCO recognized it as the country's first site of patrimony, declaring it a World Heritage Site in 2003.<ref name=inscribe />
Contents
Location
The Mausoleum of Khawaja Ahmed Yasawi is situated in the north-eastern part of the modern-day town of Turkestan (formerly known as Hazrat-e Turkestan),<ref name=whs>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=hazrat>Template:Cite web</ref> an ancient centre of caravan trade known earlier as Khazret and later as Yasi,<ref name=brittanica>Template:Cite book</ref> in the southern part of Kazakhstan. The structure is within the vicinity of a historic citadel,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> which is now an archaeological site.<ref name=whs />
Remains of medieval structures such as other mausoleums, mosques and bath houses characterize the archaeological area.<ref name=whs /> To the north of the Mausoleum of Khawaja Ahmed Yasawi, a reconstructed section of the citadel wall from the 1970s separates the historical area from the developments of the modern town.<ref name=whs />
History
Khawaja Ahmed Yasawi
Template:Main Khoja Ahmed Yasawi (Khawaja or Khwaja (Persian: خواجه pronounced khâje) corresponds to "master", whence Arabic: خواجة khawājah), also spelled as Khawajah Akhmet Yassawi, was the 12th-century head of a regional school of Sufism, a mystic movement in Islam which began in the 9th century.<ref name=whs /> He was born in Ispidjab (modern Sayram) in 1093, and spent most of his life in Yasi, dying there in 1166.<ref name=roi /> He is widely revered in Central Asia and the Turkic-speaking world for popularizing Sufism,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> which sustained the diffusion of Islam in the area despite the contemporary onslaught of the Mongol invasion.<ref name=whs /> The theological school he created turned Yasi into the most important medieval enlightening center of the area.<ref name=khoja /> He was also an outstanding poet, philosopher and statesman.<ref name=khoja /> Yasawi was interred in a small mausoleum, which became a pilgrimage site for Muslims.<ref name=timurid /><ref name=khoja>Template:Cite web</ref>
New mausoleum
The town of Yasi was largely spared during the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia in the 13th century.<ref name=yasi /> Overtime, the descendants of the Mongols settled in the area and converted to Islam.<ref name=timurid /> The town then came under the control of the Timurid Dynasty in the 1360s.<ref name=whs /> Timur (Tamerlane), the founder of the dynasty, expanded the empire's realm to include Mesopotamia, Iran, and all of Transoxiana, with its capital located in Samarkand.<ref name=whs /> To gain the support of local citizens, Timur adopted the policy of constructing monumental public and cult buildings.<ref name=yasi>Template:Cite web</ref> In Yasi, he put his attention to the construction of a larger mausoleum to house Yasawi's remains,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=complex>Template:Cite web</ref> with the intention of glorifying Islam, promoting its further dissemination, and improving the governance of the immediate areas.<ref name=complex />
The new mausoleum was begun in 1389.<ref name=whs /> Timur imported builders from cities which he laid waste during his campaigns, including mosaic-workers from Shiraz and stonemasons and stucco-workers from Isfahan.<ref name=timurid /> The master builders were led by Khwaja Hosein Shirazi from Iran.<ref> Template:Cite book</ref> It was reported that Timur himself participated in the design of the structure,<ref name=timurid>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=complex /> where he introduced experimental spatial arrangements, types of vaults and domes. These innovations were later implemented in the religious edifices of other cities.<ref name=whs /> However, the mausoleum was left unfinished, when Timur died in 1405.<ref name=whs />
Decline and preservation
When the Timurid Empire disintegrated, control of the immediate territory passed on to the Kazakh Khanate, which made Yasi, then renamed Turkestan, its capital in the 16th century.<ref name=geopolitical>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=capital>Template:Cite web</ref> The khans (Turkic for "ruler") sought to strengthen the political and religious importance of Turkestan to unify the nomadic tribes within the young state.<ref name=capital /> Hence, as the khanate's political center, ceremonies for the elevation of the khans to the throne and missions from neighboring states were received in Turkestan.<ref name=geopolitical /> The Kazakh nobility also held their most important meetings to decide state-related matters in the capital.<ref name=capital />
The town, situated on the border of the nomadic and settled cultures,<ref name=geopolitical /> flourished as the khanate's largest trade and craft center.<ref name=capital /> Fortifications were erected to safeguard this commercial role,<ref name=geopolitical /> including the 19th-century construction of defensive walls around the unfinished mausoleum,<ref name=whs /> which became an important landmark and pilgrimage center of the town. In the succeeding centuries, Turkestan and its historic monuments became connected with the idea of the Kazakh state system.<ref name=capital /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Political struggles and the shift in overland trade in favor of maritime routes soon led to the town's decline, before it finally passed on to the Russian Empire in 1864.<ref name=whs />
The town was eventually deserted; a new town center was developed west of the area, built around a new railway station.<ref name=whs /> The territory came under Soviet rule by the 20th century. The new administration carried out preservation and restoration work on site,<ref name=whs /> although they considered it more as an architectural rather than a spiritual structure. Hence, the mausoleum was closed to the devotees who came to pay homage to Yasawi.<ref name=timurid /> Nevertheless, the local khoja based at the mausoleum allowed pilgrims to secretly enter the structure at night.<ref name=roi2>Template:Cite book</ref> Beginning in 1922, several commissions took part in the technical investigation of the building.<ref name=complex /> Regular maintenance has been in place beginning in 1938, while a series of restoration campaigns were started in 1945, with the last one being held from 1993 to 2000.<ref name=whs /> Among the latest conservation steps implemented were the replacement of the structure's clay foundation with reinforced concrete, the consolidation of walls, the waterproofing of the roofs, and the layering of new tiles, based on historic designs and patterns, on the domes.<ref name=whs /> The continuous conservation works have been in place when Kazakhstan gained its independence. The building is protected as a national monument and is included on the List of National Properties of Kazakhstan. The site is under the administration of the Azret-Sultan State Historical and Cultural Reserve Museum, in charge with the safeguarding, research, conservation, monitoring and maintenance of the mausoleum.<ref name=whs />
Architecture
The unfinished state of the Mausoleum of Khawaja Ahmed Yasawi, especially at the entrance portal and sections of the interior,<ref name=complex /> allow for the better architectural scrutiny of how the monument was designed and constructed.<ref name=whs /> The structure is rectangular in plan, measuring 45.8 × 62.7 m (150.3 × 205.7 ft), and is 38.7 m (127.0 ft) high. It is oriented from the south-east to the north-west.<ref name=whs />
The primary material used for the building is ganch—fired brick mixed with mortar, gypsum and clay<ref name=whs />—which was made in a plant located in Sauran.<ref name=complex /> Layers of clay reaching a depth of 1.5 m (4.9 ft), to prevent the water penetration, were used for the original foundation.<ref name=complex /> These were replaced with reinforced concrete in modern restoration works.<ref name=whs /> The main entrance to the mausoleum is from the south-east, through which visitors are ushered into the 18.2 × 18.2-m (59.7 × 59.7-ft) Main Hall, known as Kazandyk (the "copper room").<ref name=whs /><ref name=complex /><ref name=daytrip>Template:Cite web</ref> The section is covered by the largest existing brick dome in Central Asia, also measuring 18.2 m (59.7 ft) in diameter.<ref name=daytrip /> At the center of the Kazandyk is a bronze cauldron, used for religious purposes.<ref name=complex /> The tomb of Yasawi is situated on the central axis at the end of the building in the northwest, with the sarcophagus located exactly at the center of the section, which has a double dome ribbed roof —the inner dome being 17.0 m (55.8 ft) high and the outer dome being 28.0 m (91.9 ft) high.<ref name=complex /> The dome exterior is covered with hexagonal green glazed tiles with gold patterns.<ref name=complex /> The interior is adorned with alabaster stalactites, known as muqarnas.<ref name=whs /> Additional rooms in the structure, totaling more than 35,<ref name=daytrip /> include meeting rooms, a refectory, a library, and a mosque, which had light blue geometric and floral ornaments on its walls.<ref name=complex /> The mausoleum's exterior walls are covered in glazed tiles constituting geometric patterns with Kufic and Suls epigraphic ornaments derived from the Qur'an.<ref name=whs /> Initial plans also called for the addition of two minarets, but this was not realized when construction was halted in 1405.<ref name=whs /><ref name=complex /> Template:-
Legacy
Birth of Timurid Architecture
The construction of the mausoleum provided important advances in building technology, displaying unsurpassed records of all kinds in terms of its vaulted constructions and artistic innovations.<ref name=whs /> The achievements derived from the mausoleum's erection, together with the Timurids’ patronage of music, calligraphy, Persian miniature painting, literature, and various scientific pursuits,<ref name=timurid /> gave birth to a distinct Islamic artistic style, to be known as Timurid.<ref name=brittanica2 />
The spacious structure employed a radially symmetrical plan for spatial arrangement. The visual balance created by the precise construction became a characteristic aesthetic feature of Timurid buildings—one which would famously be adopted by the Mughal Architecture of India, especially in the gardens and structures of Humayun's Tomb and Taj Mahal, both commissioned by descendants of Timur.<ref name=humayun>Template:Cite web</ref>
The double dome technique executed in the mausoleum made possible the huge domes of the Timurid era.<ref name=holy>Template:Cite web</ref> The dome is created by employing a squinch, or corner bracketing, that allows for the transition from a square, octagonal or 16-sided base to a dome top.<ref name=holy /> Indeed, the mausoleum's main dome remains the largest existing brick dome in Central Asia.
The use of glazed tiles, mosaics, patterned brickwork, and Islamic calligraphy was also influential.<ref name=holy /> Advances in pottery techniques allowed for the mass production of glazed tiles used for various decorative functions.<ref name=timurid /> Among the techniques devised for tile decoration are:<ref name=religious>Template:Cite web</ref>
- Banna’i technique: the "builder's technique," consists of revetment of glazed bricks set within unglazed ones to form geometric patterns
- Haftrangi: a technique that permits the creation of multi-colored patterns on the same tile before firing without letting the colors mix
- Faience: a patterned arrangement of closely fitted small pieces of tiles which have surface glaze of different colors
The employment of tiles and muqarnas bear strong influence from Iran, where many of Timur's architects were from.<ref name=timurid /> The covered surfaces create visual effects based on how the observer would view the building, and "read" the calligraphic messages.<ref name=holy /> Template:Cquote The tile work was also used to obscure the structural joints of the building.<ref name=holy /> The use of turquoise and azure-blue as the prominent color of choice for many structures were meant to contrast with the bright sunlight of the Central Asian desert.<ref name=holy />
The mausoleum's construction at a time when many other Central Asian settlements had been experiencing building sprees under Timur's political ideology<ref name=whs /> allowed for the exchange of ideas and techniques across the empire. Master builders and laborers from the conquered cities congregated to build projects. The employment of Persian architects in leading the major construction activities resulted in the introduction of Persian elements in the Timurid style. This and the Timurids’ general patronage of the arts have made them the greatest patrons of Iranian culture.<ref name=history>Template:Cite web</ref>
The landmark architectural and artistic solutions realized in the erection of the Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi were immediately utilized in other building endeavors, such as contemporary works in Samarkand, Herat, Meshed, Khargird, Tayabad, Baku and Tabriz.<ref name=brittanica2 /> It is thought that the peak of Timurid Architecture could be found in the buildings of Samarkand.<ref name=timurid /> Timur filled his capital with both secular and religious monuments, as well as a plethora of gardens, which featured stone walls and floors with elaborate patterns and palaces outfitted with gold, silk and carpets.<ref name=timurid /><ref name=builders /> Among these are:<ref name=religious />
- Bibi-Khanum Mosque: the world's largest mosque when it was completed in 1404;<ref name=bloody>Template:Cite news</ref> it displays Timur's concern for monumental effect and theatrical arrangement
- Gur-i-Amir Mausoleum: the burial place of Timur; it contains a double shell dome for the achievement of a vertical effect
- Shah-i Zinda Complex: a funerary complex presenting the pinnacle of every tile technique known to the Timurids
- Registan: considered the pinnacle of Timurid architecture;<ref name=bloody /> a broad plaza fronted by the towering edifices of three madrassas (Islamic schools), even if none of them were commissioned by Timur himself and were built in a later period by Ulug Beg and Governor Yalangtush.
The mausoleum is thus seen as a prototype,<ref name=whs /> marking the beginning of a new architectural style,<ref name=brittanica2>Template:Cite book</ref> which culminated in the monuments of Samarkand,<ref name=timurid /> but was also continuously developed as in the case of India's Mughal Architecture.<ref name=humayun /> Indeed, the Timurids’ outstanding achievement in architecture is encapsulated in an Arab proverb from one of Timur's buildings, "If you want to know about us, observe our buildings."<ref name=timurid /><ref name=builders /> It is also for this reason that UNESCO has recognized the mausoleum as a World Heritage Site in 2003,<ref name=inscribe>Template:Cite web</ref> following the same international recognition for the sites of Samarkand, Humayun's Tomb and Taj Mahal.
Religious and cultural importance
The larger mausoleum which Timurid ordered further enhanced the shrine's religious importance. During the Kazakh Khanate, prominent personalities chose to be buried within the immediate vicinity of the monument.<ref name=whs /><ref name=complex /> Among these are Abulkhair, Rabi'i Sultan-Begim, Zholbarys-khan, Esim-khan, Ondan-sultan (the son of Shygai-khan), Ablai Khan, Kaz dauysty Kazbek-bi.<ref name=geopolitical /> The mausoleum's holy reputation also reached foreign lands. In the early 16th century, Ubaydullah Khan, the successor to Muhammad Shaybani Kahn of the neighboring Uzbek Khanate, stopped at the mausoleum before his battle against Babur, who would later become the founder of the Mughal Empire. He swore that if he were to emerge victorious, his rule would fully follow the sharia law.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Despite the public closure of the monument during the Soviet era, the mausoleum has continued to draw pilgrims once the order was lifted. Up to contemporary times, the Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi has remained an object of pilgrimage for Kazakh Muslims.<ref name=hazrat /><ref name=builders>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Hence, the town of Turkestan became the second Mecca for the Muslims of Central Asia<ref name=hazrat /><ref name=geopolitical /> Indeed, the mausoleum's importance to the town is attested by Turkestan's former name, Hazrat-e Turkestan, which literally means "Saint of Turkestan," a direct reference to Yasawi. However, it is considered to be blasphemous to compare hajj to Mecca with three pilgrimages to Turkistan. There is no supporting evidence either from Quran or Hadith that this place is holy and three pilgrimages to Turkistan is equivalent to one hajj to Mecca.
As the capital of the preceding Kazakh Khanate, which saw the emergence of the distinct Kazakh nationality,<ref name=geopolitical /><ref name=capital /> Turkestan remains the cultural heart of modern Kazakhstan. Being the burial site for the Sufi theologian and the khanate's Kazakh nobility, the mausoleum has further enhanced the town's prestige.<ref name=timurid /> The continuance of the Kazakh nation and Central Asian Islamic faith in modern times are testaments to the historical and cultural importance of Turkestan, with the Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi at its center.<ref name=khoja/> Perceived as one of the greatest mausoleums of the Islamic world, it has survived and remains a significant monument both to faith and architectural achievement in the region.
See also
- History of Kazakhstan
- Islamic architecture
- List of World Heritage Sites in Kazakhstan
- Persian architecture
- History of Persian domes
