View source for Sasanian Empire

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{{use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name = Ērānshahr<ref name="native-name">[[Book Pahlavi]] spelling: [[File:Eranshahr.svg|60px]] ({{transl|pal|ʾylʾnštr'}})<br />[[Inscriptional Pahlavi]] spelling: {{lang|pal|𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩}} ({{transl|pal|ʾyrʾnštry}}), {{lang|pal|𐭠𐭩𐭫𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩}} ({{transl|pal|ʾylʾnštry}})<br />[[Modern Persian]]: {{lang|fa|ایرانشهر}}</ref><ref name=wiesehofer />
|conventional_long_name = Sasanian Empire
|common_name = Persia
|continent = Afroeurasia
|region = Near East
|era = [[Late Antiquity]]
|government_type = [[Feudal monarchy]]<ref>https://books.google.dk/books?id=sP_hVmik-QYC&pg=PA179</ref>
|year_start = 224
|year_end = 651
|event_start = [[Battle of Hormozdgān]]
|date_start = 28 April
|event1 = [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|Climactic Roman–Persian War of 602-628]]
|date_event1 = 602–628
|event2 = Civil war<ref name="Parvaneh Pourshariati 2008. p. 4">Parvaneh Pourshariati, ''Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran'', I.B. Tauris, 2008. (p. 4)</ref>
|date_event2 = 628-632
|event3 = [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Muslim conquest]]
|date_event3 = 633–651
|event_end = [[Fall of the Sasanian Empire|Empire collapses]]
|date_end =
|p1 = Parthian Empire
|flag_p1 = Parthia 001ad.jpg
|p2 = Indo-Scythians
|flag_p2 = Indo-ScythiansMap.jpg
|p3 = Kingdom of Iberia
|flag_p3 = Georgian States Colchis and Iberia (600-150BC)-en.svg
|p4 = Kushan Empire
|flag_p4 = Kushanmap.jpg
|p5 = Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)
|flag_p5 = Maps of the Armenian Empire of Tigranes.gif
|p6 = Lakhmids
|flag_p6 = LakhmidsVassal.png
|s1 = Qarinvand dynasty
|flag_s1 =
|s2 = Zarmihrids
|flag_s2 =
|s3 = Rashidun Caliphate
|flag_s3 = black flag.svg
|s4 = Dabuyid dynasty
|flag_s4 = Tabaristan-EN.svg
|s5 = Masmughans of Damavand
|flag_s5 =
|s6 = Bavand dynasty
|flag_s6 = BavandDynastyIranian.png
|image_flag = Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg
|flag_type = Derafsh Kaviani
|flag = Derafsh Kaviani
|image_coat = Senmurv.svg
|symbol_type = Simurgh
|symbol = Simurgh
|image_map = Sassanian Empire 621 A.D.jpg
|image_map_caption = The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent c. 620&nbsp;CE., under [[Khosrau II]]
{{plainlist | style = padding-center: 0.6em; text-align: center; |
* {{Legend|#FF7F50|Normal domains}}
* {{Legend|#FF9966|Greatest temporary extent during [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]]}}
}}

|capital = *[[Istakhr]] <small>(224–226)</small><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ctesiphon |title=CTESIPHON – Encyclopaedia Iranica |publisher=Iranicaonline.org |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref>
*[[Ctesiphon]] <small>(226–637)</small>
|common_languages = *[[Middle Persian]] (official){{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=99-100}}<ref>''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East'', Vol.1, Ed. Jamie Stokes, (Infobase Publishing, 2009), 601.</ref>
*[[Middle Aramaic]] (lingua franca)<ref name="Chyet 1997 284">{{cite book|last=Chyet|first=Michael L.|authorlink=Michael L. Chyet|editor1-last=Afsaruddin|editor1-first=Asma|editor2-last=Krotkoff|editor2-first=Georg|editor3-last=Zahniser|editor3-first=A. H. Mathias|editor1-link=Asma Afsaruddin|title=Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff|year=1997|publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]]|isbn=978-1-57506-020-0|page=284|quote=In the Middle Persian period (Parthian and Sasanian Empires), Aramaic was the medium of everyday writing, and it provided scripts for writing Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, and Khwarezmian.}}</ref>
*[[Parthian language|Parthian]] (administration, until the late 3rd-century) spoken in the north and east, and by the [[seven Parthian clans]]){{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=99-100}}
*[[Koine Greek|Greek]] (administration, until the late 3rd-century) and regional){{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=99-100}}
*[[#Regional languages|Other languages]]
|religion = [[Zoroastrianism]]<br/>(<small>also [[Babylonian religion|Babylonian]], [[Nestorian Christianity|Christianity]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Judaism]], [[Mandaeism]], [[Paganism]], [[Mithraism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]]</small>)
|currency = 
|title_leader = [[List of shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire|Shahanshah]]
|leader1 = [[Ardashir I]] <small>(first)</small>
|year_leader1 = 224–241
|leader2 = [[Yazdegerd III]] <small>(last)</small>
|year_leader2 = 632–651
|stat_year1 = 550<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D | title = East-West Orientation of Historical Empires | journal = Journal of world-systems research|date=December 2006 |volume=12|issue=2 |page=223 |url =http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|accessdate=11 September 2016 |issn= 1076-156X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.|journal=Social Science History|date=1979|volume=3|issue=3/4|page=122|doi=10.2307/1170959|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1170959|accessdate=11 September 2016}}</ref>
|stat_area1 = 3500000
|stat_pop1 = 
}}
{{History of Iran}}
The '''Sasanian Empire''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ə|ˈ|s|ɑː|n|i|ə|n|}} or {{IPAc-en|s|ə|ˈ|s|eɪ|n|i|ə|n|}}), also known as '''Sassanian''', '''Sasanid''', '''Sassanid''' or '''Neo-Persian Empire'''),<ref>{{cite book|last=Fattah|first=Hala Mundhir|title=A Brief History Of Iraq|year=2009 |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8160-5767-2|page=49 |quote=Historians have also referred to the Sassanian Empire as the Neo-Persian Empire.}}</ref> known to its inhabitants as '''''[[Iran (word)|Ērānshahr]]'''''<ref name="native-name" /> in [[Middle Persian]],{{efn|Whence the [[New Persian]] terms ''Iranshahr'' and ''Iran'',<ref>{{Citation |author=MacKenzie, D. N. |title=A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary |year=2005 |page=120 |publisher=Routledge Curzon|location=London & New York |isbn=0-19-713559-5}}</ref>}} was the last imperial dynasty in [[Persian Empire|Persia]] (Iran) before the rise of [[Islam]], ruled by and named after the [[House of Sasan|Sasanian dynasty]] from 224 to 651 AD.<ref name=wiesehofer>{{harv|Wiesehofer|1996}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A Brief History |url=http://www.cultureofiran.com/b_history.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011121030510/http://www.cultureofiran.com:80/b_history.php |dead-url=yes |archive-date=21 November 2001 |work=Culture of Iran |publisher= |accessdate=11 September 2009 }}</ref> The Sasanian Empire, which succeeded the [[Parthian Empire]], was recognized as one of the leading world powers alongside its neighboring arch-rival the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]-[[Byzantine Empire]], for a period of more than 400 years.<ref name=EIr-Sasanian>{{harv|Shapur Shahbazi|2005}}</ref><ref name="Norman A. Stillman pp 22">Norman A. Stillman ''The Jews of Arab Lands'' pp 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 ISBN 0827611552</ref><ref name="Byzantine Studies 2006, pp 29">International Congress of Byzantine Studies ''Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006, Volumes 1-3'' pp 29. Ashgate Pub Co, 30 sep. 2006 ISBN 075465740X</ref>

The Sasanian Empire was founded by [[Ardashir I]], after the fall of the Parthian Empire and the defeat of the last [[Arsacid]] king, [[Artabanus V of Parthia|Artabanus V]]. At its greatest extent, the Sasanian Empire encompassed all of today's [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Eastern Arabia]] ([[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]], [[Oman]], [[Qatif]], [[Qatar]], [[UAE]]), the [[Levant]] ([[Syria]], [[State of Palestine|Palestine]], [[Lebanon]], [[Israel]], [[Jordan]]), [[Armenia]], the [[Caucasus]] ([[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Dagestan]], [[South Ossetia]], [[Abkhazia]]), [[Egypt]], large parts of [[Turkey]], much of [[Central Asia]] ([[Afghanistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]]), [[Yemen]] and [[Pakistan]]. According to a legend, the [[vexilloid]] of the Sasanian Empire was the [[Derafsh Kaviani]].<ref name="Derafš-e Kāvīān">Khaleghi-Motlagh, [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/derafs-e-kavian- Derafš-e Kāvīān]</ref>

The Sasanian Empire during [[Late Antiquity]] is considered to have been one of Iran's most important and influential historical periods, and constituted the last great Iranian empire before the [[Islamic conquest of Persia|Muslim conquest]] and the adoption of Islam.<ref>Hourani, p. 87.</ref> In many ways, the Sasanian period witnessed the peak of ancient [[Persian culture|Iranian civilization]].  Persia influenced [[Culture of ancient Rome|Roman culture]] considerably during the Sasanian period.<ref name="J. B. Bury, p. 109">J. B. Bury, p. 109.</ref> The Sasanians' cultural influence extended far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as [[Western Europe]],<ref>Will Durant, ''Age of Faith'', (Simon and Schuster, 1950), 150; ''Repaying its debt, Sasanian art exported it forms and motives eastward into India, Turkestan, and China, westward into Syria, Asia Minor, Constantinople, the Balkans, Egypt, and Spain.''.</ref> [[Africa]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transoxiana.com.ar/0104/sasanians.html |title=Transoxiana 04: Sasanians in Africa |publisher=Transoxiana.com.ar |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref> [[China]] and [[India]].<ref>Sarfaraz, pp. 329–330</ref> It played a prominent role in the formation of both [[Medieval art|European]] and [[History of Eastern art|Asian]] medieval art.<ref name="Iransaga: The art of Sassanians">{{cite web|url=http://www.artarena.force9.co.uk/sass2.htm |title=Iransaga: The art of Sassanians |publisher=Artarena.force9.co.uk |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref> Much of what later became known as [[Islamic culture]] in art, architecture, music and other subject matter was transferred from the Sasanians throughout the [[Muslim world]].<ref>Abdolhossein Zarinkoob: ''Ruzgaran: tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi'', page 305</ref>

==History==
{{see also|Timeline of Sasanian Empire}}

===Origins and early history (205–310)===
[[File:Ghal'eh Dokhtar2.jpg|thumb|[[Ghal'eh Dokhtar]] (or "The Maiden's Castle") in present-day [[Fars Province|Fars]], [[Firuzabad, Fars|Firuzabad]], [[Iran]], built by Ardashir in 209, before he was finally able to defeat the Parthian empire.]]
[[File:Ctesiphon.jpg|thumb|[[Taq Kasra]] is the most famous Persian monument from the Sasanian era.]]

Conflicting accounts shroud the details of the fall of the [[Parthian Empire]] and subsequent rise of the Sasanian Empire in mystery.<ref name=Fyre461>{{Harvnb|Frye|2005|p=461}}</ref> The Sassanid Empire was established in [[Estakhr]] by [[Ardashir I]].

[[Papak]] was originally the ruler of a region called Khir. However, by the year 200, he managed to overthrow [[Gochihr]], and appoint himself as the new ruler of the [[Bazrangids]]. His mother, Rodhagh, was the daughter of the provincial governor of [[Fars Province|Pars]]. Papak and his eldest son Shapur managed to expand their power over all of Pars. The subsequent events are unclear, due to the elusive nature of the sources. It is certain, however, that following the death of Papak, Ardashir, who at the time was the governor of [[Darabgerd]], got involved in a power struggle of his own with his elder brother Shapur. Sources reveal that Shapur, leaving for a meeting with his brother, was killed when the roof of a building collapsed on him. By the year 208, over the protests of his other brothers who were put to death, Ardashir declared himself ruler of Pars.<ref name=Farrokh178>{{harvnb|Farrokh|2007|p=178}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Zarinkoob|1999|p=194&nbsp;198}}</ref>

Once Ardashir was appointed ''[[shahanshah]]'', he moved his capital further to the south of Pars and founded [[Ardashir-Khwarrah]] (formerly ''Gur'', modern day [[Firuzabad, Fars|Firuzabad]]). The city, well supported by high mountains and easily defendable through narrow passes, became the center of Ardashir's efforts to gain more power. The city was surrounded by a high, circular wall, probably copied from that of Darabgird, and on the north-side included a large palace, remains of which still survive today. After establishing his rule over Pars, Ardashir I rapidly extended his territory, demanding fealty from the local princes of Fars, and gaining control over the neighboring provinces of [[Kerman province|Kerman]], [[Isfahan Province|Isfahan]], [[Susa|Susiana]] and [[Mesene]]. This expansion quickly came to the attention of Artabanus V, the Parthian king, who initially ordered the governor of Khuzestan to wage war against Ardashir in 224, but the battles were victories for Ardashir. In a second attempt to destroy Ardashir, Artabanus V himself met Ardashir in battle at Hormozgan, where Artabanus V met his death. Following the death of the Parthian ruler, Ardashir I went on to invade the western provinces of the now defunct Parthian Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Farrokh|2007|p=180}}</ref>

[[File:Bas relief nagsh-e-rostam al.jpg|thumb|left|Rock-face relief at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] of Persian emperor Shapur I (on horseback) capturing Roman emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] (standing) and [[Philip the Arab]] (kneeling), suing for peace, following the victory at [[Battle of Edessa|Edessa]].]]

At that time the Arsacid dynasty was divided between supporters of [[Artabanus V of Parthia|Artabanus V]] and [[Vologases VI of Parthia|Vologases VI]], which probably allowed Ardashir to consolidate his authority in the south with little or no interference from the Parthians. Ardashir was aided by the geography of the province of Fars, which was separated from the rest of Iran.<ref>{{harvnb|Frye|2005|p-465&nbsp;466}}</ref> Crowned in 224 at [[Ctesiphon]] as the sole ruler of Persia, Ardashir took the title ''shahanshah'', or "King of Kings" (the inscriptions mention [[Adhur-Anahid]] as his [[Banbishnan banbishn]], "Queen of Queens", but her relationship with Ardashir is not established), bringing the 400-year-old Parthian Empire to an end, and beginning four centuries of Sassanid rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Frye|2005|p=466&nbsp;467}}</ref>

In the next few years, local rebellions would form around the empire. Nonetheless, Ardashir I further expanded his new empire to the east and northwest, conquering the provinces of [[Sistan]], [[Gorgan]], [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]], [[Merv|Margiana]] (in modern [[Turkmenistan]]), [[Balkh]] and [[Khwarezmia|Chorasmia]]. He also added [[Bahrain]] and [[Mosul]] to Sassanid's possessions. Later Sassanid inscriptions also claim the submission of the Kings of [[Kushan]], [[Turan]] and [[Mekran]] to Ardashir, although based on numismatic evidence, it is more likely that these actually submitted to Ardashir's son, the future [[Shapur I]]. In the west, assaults against [[Hatra]], [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]] and [[Adiabene]] met with less success. In 230, he raided deep into Roman territory, and a Roman counter-offensive two years later ended inconclusively, although the [[Roman emperor]], [[Alexander Severus]], celebrated a triumph in [[Roman Empire|Rome]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodian/hre605.html |title=5.1-6 |publisher=Livius.org |date=2007-07-08 |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Dodgeon-Greatrex-Lieu|2002|p=24&nbsp;28}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Frye|1993|p=124}}</ref>

[[File:HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg|thumb|The Humiliation of Valerian by Shapur ([[Hans Holbein the Younger]], 1521, pen and black ink on a chalk sketch, [[Kunstmuseum Basel]])]]

Ardashir I's son Shapur I continued the expansion of the empire, conquering [[Bactria]] and the western portion of the Kushan Empire, while leading several campaigns against Rome. Invading [[Roman Mesopotamia]], Shapur I captured [[Harran|Carrhae]] and [[Nisibis]], but in 243 the Roman general [[Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus|Timesitheus]] defeated the Persians at [[Battle of Resaena|Rhesaina]] and regained the lost territories.<ref name="Frye125">{{harvnb|Frye|1993|p=125}}</ref> The emperor [[Gordian III]]'s (238–244) subsequent advance down the [[Euphrates]] was defeated at [[Battle of Misiche|Meshike]] (244), leading to Gordian's murder by his own troops and enabling Shapur to conclude a highly advantageous peace treaty with the new emperor [[Philip the Arab]], by which he secured the immediate payment of 500,000 ''[[denarii]]'' and further annual payments.

Shapur soon resumed the war, defeated the Romans at [[Battle of Barbalissos|Barbalissos]] (253), and then probably took and plundered [[Antioch]].<ref name="Frye125"/><ref>{{harvnb|Southern|2001|p=235&nbsp;236}}</ref> Roman counter-attacks under the emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] ended in disaster when the Roman army was defeated and besieged at [[Battle of Edessa|Edessa]] and Valerian was captured by Shapur, remaining his prisoner for the rest of his life. Shapur celebrated his victory by carving the impressive rock reliefs in [[Naqsh-e Rostam]] and [[Bishapur]], as well as a monumental inscription in Persian and [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] in the vicinity of [[Persepolis]]. He exploited his success by advancing into [[Anatolia]] (260), but withdrew in disarray after defeats at the hands of the Romans and their [[Palmyra|Palmyrene]] ally [[Odaenathus]], suffering the capture of his harem and the loss of all the Roman territories he had occupied.<ref>{{harvnb|Frye|1993|p=126}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Southern||2001p=238}}</ref>

[[File:ManichaeismSpread.jpg|left|thumb|The spread of Manichaeism (300– 500)<ref>World History Atlas, Dorling Kindersly</ref>]]

Shapur had intensive development plans. He ordered the construction of the [[Band-e Kaisar|first dam bridge in Iran]] and founded many cities, some settled in part by emigrants from the Roman territories, including Christians who could exercise their faith freely under Sassanid rule. Two cities, [[Bishapur]] and [[Nishapur]], are named after him. He particularly favored [[Manichaeism]], protected [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] (who dedicated one of his books, the [[Shabuhragan]], to him) and sent many Manichaean missionaries abroad. He also befriended a [[Babylon]]ian rabbi called [[Samuel of Nehardea|Samuel]].

This friendship was advantageous for the [[Jewish]] community and gave them a respite from the oppressive laws enacted against them. Later kings reversed Shapur's policy of religious tolerance. Under pressure from [[Zoroastrian]] [[Magi]] and influenced by the high-priest [[Kartir]], [[Bahram I]] killed Mani and persecuted his followers. [[Bahram II]] was, like his father, amenable to the wishes of the Zoroastrian priesthood.<ref>{{harvnb|Zarinkoob|1999|p=197}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Frye|1968|p=128}}</ref> During his reign, the Sassanid capital Ctesiphon was sacked by the Romans under Emperor [[Carus]], and most of Armenia, after half a century of Persian rule, was ceded to [[Diocletian]].<ref>{{harvnb|Zarinkoob|1999|p=199}}</ref>

Succeeding [[Bahram III]] (who ruled briefly in 293), [[Narseh]] embarked on another war with the Romans. After an early success against the Emperor [[Galerius]] near [[Raqqa|Callinicum]] on the Euphrates in 296, Narseh was decisively defeated. Galerius had been reinforced, probably in the spring of 298, by a new contingent collected from the empire's [[Danubian]] holdings.<ref name="BNSCE18">Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', p. 18.</ref> Narseh did not advance from Armenia and [[Mesopotamia]], leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius' force, to Narseh's disadvantage: the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and, in two successive battles, Galerius secured victories over Narseh.<ref name="Barnes, p. 18">Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', p. 18; Potter, ''The Roman Empire at Bay'', p. 293.</ref>

[[File:Caucasus 300 map alt de.png|thumb|Rome and vassal Armenia around 300, after Narseh's defeat]]

During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife.<ref name="Barnes, p. 18"/> Galerius advanced into [[Media (region)|Media]] and [[Adiabene]], winning successive victories, most prominently near [[Erzurum]], and securing Nisibis ([[Nusaybin]], Turkey) before October 1, 298. He moved down the [[Tigris]], taking Ctesiphon. Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wives and children. Peace negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding.

The conditions of the peace were heavy: Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border; [[Caucasian Iberia]] would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene ([[Sophene]]), Arzanene ([[Aghdznik]]), [[Corduene]], and Zabdicene (near modern [[Hakkâri]], Turkey).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=njwgd7YZHi8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=roman+empire+in+persia&hl=en&ei=CaAhTNrBOoKKlwfRx4E2&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=roman%20empire%20in%20persia&f=false|author1=Michael H. Dodgeon |author2=Samuel N. C. Lieu |title=Galienus conquests:Google Book on Roman Eastern Frontier (part 1) |publisher=Routledge|year=1991 |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref>

The Sassanids ceded five provinces west of the Tigris, and agreed not to interfere in the affairs of Armenia and Georgia.<ref>{{harvnb|Zarinkoob|1999|p=200}}</ref> In the aftermath of this defeat, Narseh gave up the throne and died a year later, leaving the Sassanid throne to his son, [[Hormizd II]]. Unrest spread throughout the land, and while Hormizd II suppressed revolts in [[Sakastan]] and Kushan, he was unable to control the nobles and was subsequently killed by [[Bedouins]] in a hunting trip in 309.

===First Golden Era (309–379)===
Following Hormizd II's death, Arabs from the north started to ravage and plunder the western cities of the empire, even attacking the province of Fars, the birthplace of the Sassanid kings. Meanwhile, Persian nobles killed Hormizd II's eldest son, blinded the second, and imprisoned the third (who later escaped to Roman territory). The throne was reserved for [[Shapur II]], the unborn child of one of Hormizd II's wives who was crowned ''in utero'': the crown was placed upon his mother's stomach.<ref>Agathias, ''Histories'', 25, 2-5 translated by Dodgeon-Greatrex-Lieu (2002), I, 126</ref> During his youth the empire was controlled by his mother and the nobles. Upon Shapur II's coming of age, he assumed power and quickly proved to be an active and effective ruler.

Shapur II first led his small but disciplined army south against the Arabs, whom he defeated, securing the southern areas of the empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Zarinkoob|1999|p=206}}</ref> He then started his first campaign against the Romans in the west, where Persian forces won a series of battles but were unable to make territorial gains due to the failure of repeated sieges of the key frontier city of Nisibis, and Roman success in retaking the cities of [[Singara]] and [[Diyarbakir|Amida]], after they had fallen to the Persians.

These campaigns were halted by nomadic raids along the eastern borders of the empire, which threatened [[Transoxiana]], a strategically critical area for control of the [[Silk Road]]. Shapur therefore marched east toward Transoxiana to meet the eastern nomads, leaving his local commanders to mount nuisance raids on the Romans.<ref>{{harvnb|Blockley|1998|p=421}}</ref> He crushed the Central Asian tribes, and annexed the area as a new province. He completed the conquest of the area now known as [[Afghanistan]].

Cultural expansion followed this victory, and Sassanid art penetrated [[Turkestan]], reaching as far as China. Shapur, along with the nomad King [[Grumbates]], started his second campaign against the Romans in 359 and soon succeeded in taking Singara and Amida again. In response, the Roman emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] struck deep into Persian territory and defeated Shapur's forces at [[Battle of Ctesiphon (363)|Ctesiphon]].  He failed to take the capital, however, and was killed while trying to retreat to Roman territory.<ref name="Frye137-138">{{harvnb|Frye|1968|p=137&nbsp;138}}</ref> His successor [[Jovian (Emperor)|Jovian]], trapped on the east bank of the Tigris, had to hand over all the provinces the Persians had ceded to Rome in 298, as well as Nisibis and Singara, to secure safe passage for his army out of Persia.

Shapur II pursued a harsh religious policy. Under his reign, the collection of the [[Avesta]], the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, was completed, heresy and apostasy were punished, and Christians were persecuted. The latter was a reaction against the [[Christianization]] of the Roman Empire by [[Constantine the Great]]. Shapur II, like Shapur I, was amicable towards [[Jews]], who lived in relative freedom and gained many advantages in his period (''see also [[Rava (amora)|Raba]]''). At the time of Shapur's death, the Persian Empire was stronger than ever, with its enemies to the east pacified and [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]] under Persian control.<ref name="Frye137-138"/>

===Intermediate Era (379–498)===
[[File:Folio from a Khamsa-c.jpg|thumb|[[Bahram V]] is a great favorite in [[Persian literature]] and poetry. "Bahram and the Indian princess in the black pavilion." Depiction of a Khamsa (Quintet) by the great Persian poet [[Nizami Ganjavi|Nizami]], mid-16th-century [[Safavid]] era.]]

From Shapur II's death until [[Kavadh I]]'s first coronation, there was a largely peaceful period with the Romans (by this time the [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Roman]] or [[Byzantine Empire]]), interrupted only by two brief wars, the [[Roman–Sasanian War (421–422)|first in 421–422]] and the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440|second in 440]].<ref name="Neusner68">{{harvnb|Neusner|1969|p=68}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bury|1923|p=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/14*.html |title=XIV.1 |publisher=Penelope.uchicago.edu |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Frye|1993|p=145}}</ref><ref>Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 37–51</ref> Throughout this era, Sassanid religious policy differed dramatically from king to king. Despite a series of weak leaders, the administrative system established during Shapur II's reign remained strong, and the empire continued to function effectively.<ref name="Neusner68"/>

After Shapur II died in 379, he left a powerful empire to his half-brother [[Ardashir II]] (379–383; son of Vahram of Kushan) and his son [[Shapur III]] (383–388), neither of whom demonstrated his predecessor's talent. Ardashir II, who was raised as the "half-brother" of the emperor, failed to fill his brother's shoes, and Shapur III was too much of a melancholy character to achieve anything. [[Bahram IV of Persia|Bahram IV]] (388–399), although not as inactive as his father, still failed to achieve anything important for the empire. During this time Armenia was divided by treaty between the Roman and Sassanid empires. The Sassanids reestablished their rule over Greater Armenia, while the Byzantine Empire held a small portion of western Armenia.

Bahram IV's son [[Yazdegerd I]] (399–421) is often compared to [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]]. Both were powerful both physically and diplomatically, opportunistic, practiced religious tolerance and provided freedom for the rise of religious minorities. Yazdegerd stopped the persecution against the Christians and even punished nobles and priests who persecuted them. His reign marked a relatively peaceful era with the Romans and he even took the young [[Theodosius II]] (408–450) under his guardianship. Yarzdegerd also married a Jewish princess who bore him a son called Narsi.

Yazdegerd I's successor was his son [[Bahram V]] (421–438), one of the most well-known Sassanid kings and the hero of many myths. These myths persisted even after the destruction of the Sassanid empire by the Arabs. Bahram V, better known as ''Bahram-e Gur'', gained the crown after Yazdegerd I's sudden death (or assassination) against the opposition of the grandees with the help of [[al-Mundhir I ibn al-Nu'man|al-Mundhir]], the Arabic dynast of [[al-Hirah]]. Bahram V's mother was [[Shushandukht]], the daughter of the Jewish [[Exilarch]]. In 427, he crushed an invasion in the east by the nomadic [[Hephthalites]], extending his influence into Central Asia, where his portrait survived for centuries on the coinage of [[Bukhara]] (in modern [[Uzbekistan]]). Bahram V deposed the vassal King of the Persian part of [[Armenia]] and made it a province.

[[File:HormizdI.jpg|thumb|left|Coin of [[Hormizd I]], issued in Khorasan, and derived from [[Kushan]] designs]]

Bahram V has many well known stories of valor, beauty, victories over the Romans, [[Turkic peoples]], Indians and [[Africans]], hunting and love; he is called Bahram-e Gur, ''Gur'' meaning [[onager]], on account of his love for hunting and, in particular, hunting onagers. He symbolized a king at the height of a golden age, embodying royal prosperity. He had won his crown by competing with his brother and spent time fighting foreign enemies, but mostly kept himself amused by hunting, court parties and a famous band of ladies and courtiers. During his time, the best pieces of [[Pahlavi literature|Sassanid literature]] were written, notable pieces of [[Sassanid music]] were composed, and sports such as [[polo]] became royal pastimes, a tradition that continues to this day in many kingdoms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranologie.com/history/history5.html|title=History of Iran, Chapter V:Sassanians |accessdate=2009-09-17}}</ref>

Bahram V's son [[Yazdegerd II]] (438–457) was in some ways a moderate ruler, but in contrast to Yazdegerd I, practiced a harsh policy towards minority religions, particularly [[Christianity]].<ref>{{harvnb|Zarinkoob|p=218}}</ref> However, by the 451 [[Battle of Avarayr]], the [[Persian Armenia|Armenian subjects]] led by [[Vardan Mamikonian]] managed to affirm Armenia's right to profess Christianity freely.<ref name="Hewsen">{{cite web|last1=Hewsen|first1=Robert H.|authorlink1=Robert H. Hewsen|title=AVARAYR|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avarayr-a-village-in-armenia-in-the-principality-of-artaz-southeast-of-the-iranian-town-of-maku|website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|date=August 17, 2011|quote=So spirited was the Armenian defense, however, that the Persians suffered enormous losses as well. Their victory was pyrrhic and the king, faced with troubles elsewhere, was forced, at least for the time being, to allow the Armenians to worship as they chose.}}</ref><ref name="Pattie">{{cite book|author=Susan Paul Pattie|title=Faith in History: Armenians Rebuilding Community |publisher= Smithsonian Institution Press |year= 1997 |p= 40 |isbn = 1560986298|quote=The Armenian defeat in the Battle of Avarayr in 451 proved a pyrrhic victory for the Persians. Though the Armenians lost their commander, Vartan Mamikonian, and most of their soldiers, Persian losses were proportionately heavy, and Armenia was allowed to remain Christian.}}</ref> This was to be later confirmed by the [[Nvarsak Treaty]] (484).

At the beginning of his reign, Yazdegerd II gathered a mixed army of various nations, including his Indian allies, and attacked the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] in 441, but peace was soon restored after small-scale fighting. He then gathered his forces in [[Nishapur]] in 443 and launched a prolonged campaign against the [[Kidarites]]. Finally, after a number of battles, he crushed the Kidarites and drove them out beyond the [[Oxus|Oxus river]] in 450.<ref>{{harvnb|Zarinkoob|p=217}}</ref>

During his eastern campaign, Yazdegerd II grew suspicious of the Christians in the army and expelled them all from the governing body and army. He then persecuted the Christians and, to a much lesser extent, the [[Jew]]s.<ref name="Zarinkoob219">{{harvnb|Zarinkoob|p=219}}</ref> In order to reestablish Zoroastrianism in Armenia, he crushed an uprising of Armenian Christians at the [[Battle of Vartanantz]] in 451. The Armenians, however, remained primarily Christian. In his later years, he was engaged yet again with Kidarites until his death in 457. [[Hormizd III]] (457–459), younger son of Yazdegerd II, ascended to the throne. During his short rule, he continually fought with his elder brother [[Peroz I of Persia|Peroz I]], who had the support of nobility,<ref name="Zarinkoob219"/> and with the Hephthalites in [[Bactria]]. He was killed by his brother Peroz in 459.

[[File:YazdegerdIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|thumb|A coin of [[Yazdegerd II]]]]

In the beginning of the 5th century, the Hephthalites (White Huns), along with other nomadic groups, attacked Persia. At first Bahram V and Yazdegerd II inflicted decisive defeats against them and drove them back eastward. The Huns returned at the end of the 5th century and defeated Peroz I (457–484) in 483. Following this victory, the Huns invaded and plundered parts of eastern Persia for two years. They exacted heavy tribute for some years thereafter.

These attacks brought instability and chaos to the kingdom. Peroz I tried again to drive out the Hephthalites, but on the way to [[Herat]], his army was trapped by the Huns in the desert; Peroz I was killed, and his army was wiped out. After this victory, the Hephthalites advanced forward to the city of Herat, throwing the empire into chaos. Eventually, a noble Iranian from the old family of Karen, [[Sukhra]], restored some degree of order. He raised [[Balash]], one of Peroz I's brothers, to the throne, although the Hunnic threat persisted until the reign of [[Khosrau I of Persia|Khosrau I]]. Balash (484–488) was a mild and generous monarch, who made concessions to the Christians; however, he took no action against the empire's enemies, particularly, the White Huns. Balash, after a reign of four years, was blinded and deposed (attributed to magnates), and his nephew [[Kavadh I]] was raised to the throne.

Kavadh I (488–531) was an energetic and reformist ruler. Kavadh I gave his support to the sect founded by [[Mazdak]], son of Bamdad, who demanded that the rich should divide their wives and their wealth with the poor. His intention evidently was, by adopting the doctrine of the Mazdakites, to break the influence of the magnates and growing aristocracy. These reforms led to his being deposed and imprisoned in the "Castle of Oblivion" in [[Susa]], and his younger brother [[Djamasp of Persia|Jamasp]] (Zamaspes), was raised to the throne in 496. Kavadh I, however, escaped in 498 and was given refuge by the White Hun king.

[[Djamasp of Persia|Djamasp]] (496–498) was installed on the Sassanid throne upon the deposition of Kavadh I by members of the nobility. Djamasp was a good and kind king, and he reduced taxes in order to relieve the [[peasant]]s and the poor. He was also an adherent of the mainstream Zoroastrian religion, diversions from which had cost Kavadh I his throne and freedom. His reign soon ended when Kavadh I, at the head of a large army granted to him by the Hephthalite king, returned to the empire's capital. Djamasp stepped down from his position and restored the throne to his brother. No further mention of Djamasp is made after the restoration of Kavadh I, but it is widely believed that he was treated favorably at the court of his brother.<ref name="iranologie">{{cite web|author=Khodadad Rezakhani |url=http://www.iranologie.com/history/history5.html |title=Iranologie History of Iran Chapter V: Sasanians |publisher=Iranologie.com |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref>

===Second Golden Era (498–622)===
The second golden era began after the second reign of Kavadh I. With the support of the [[Hephtalites]], Kavadh I launched a campaign against the Romans. In 502, he took [[Theodosiopolis (Armenia)|Theodosiopolis]] in Armenia, but lost it soon afterwards. In 503 he took [[Amida (Roman city)|Amida]] on the Tigris. In 504, an invasion of Armenia by the western Huns from the Caucasus led to an armistice, the return of Amida to Roman control and a peace treaty in 506. In 521/522 Kavadh lost control of [[Lazica]], whose rulers switched their allegiance to the Romans; an attempt by the [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberians]] in 524/525 to do likewise triggered a war between Rome and Persia.

In 527, a Roman offensive against Nisibis was repulsed and Roman efforts to fortify positions near the frontier were thwarted. In 530, Kavadh sent an army under [[Perozes]] to attack the important Roman frontier city of [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]]. The army was met by the Roman general [[Belisarius]], and though superior in numbers, was defeated at the [[Battle of Daras|Battle of Dara]]. In the same year, a second Persian army under [[Mihr-Mihroe]] was defeated at [[Satala]] by Roman forces under [[Sittas]] and Dorotheus, but in 531 a Persian army accompanied by a [[Lakhmids|Lakhmid]] contingent under [[Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man|Al-Mundhir III]] defeated Belisarius at the [[Battle of Callinicum]], and in 532 an "eternal" peace was concluded.<ref>Zarinkoob, p. 229.</ref> Although he could not free himself from the yoke of the Hephthalites, Kavadh succeeded in restoring order in the interior and fought with general success against the Eastern Romans, founded several cities, some of which were named after him, and began to regulate the taxation and internal administration.

[[File:ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG|thumb|Hunting scene on a [[gilded silver]] bowl showing king [[Khosrau I]]]]

After Kavadh I, his son [[Khosrau I]], also known as Anushirvan ("with the immortal soul"; ruled 531–579), ascended to the throne. He is the most celebrated of the Sassanid rulers. Khosrau I is most famous for his reforms in the aging governing body of Sassanids. He introduced a rational system of [[taxation]] based upon a survey of [[landed possession]]s, which his father had begun, and he tried in every way to increase the welfare and the revenues of his empire. Previous great feudal lords fielded their own military equipment, followers, and retainers. Khosrau I developed a new force of [[dehqan]]s, or "knights", paid and equipped by the central government<ref name="Frye">{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/fryehst.html |title=Richard Frye "The History of Ancient Iran" |publisher=Fordham.edu |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref> and the bureaucracy, tying the army and bureaucracy more closely to the central government than to local lords.<ref>For more on the reforms of Khosrau I, visit http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/reforms_of_anushirvan.php.</ref>

Emperor [[Justinian I]] (527–565) paid Khosrau I 440,000 pieces of gold as a part of the "eternal peace" treaty of 532. In 540, Khosrau broke the treaty and invaded Syria, sacking Antioch and extorting large sums of money from a number of other cities. Further successes followed: in 541 Lazica defected to the Persian side, and in 542 a major Byzantine offensive in [[Armenia]] was defeated at Anglon. In the same year of 541, upon requests of the Lazic king, king [[Khosrau I]], entered Lazica, captured the Byzantine main stronghold of [[Petra, Lazica|Petra]], and established another protectorate over the country,<ref>{{harvnb|Martindale|Jones|Morris|1992|pp=559, 639}}; {{harvnb|Bury|1958|pp=101–102}}.</ref> commencing the [[Lazic War]]. A five-year truce agreed to in 545 was interrupted in 547 when Lazica again switched sides and eventually expelled its Persian garrison with Byzantine help; the war resumed but remained confined to Lazica, which was retained by the Byzantines when peace was concluded in 562.

In 565, Justinian I died and was succeeded by [[Justin II]] (565–578), who resolved to stop subsidies to Arab chieftains to restrain them from raiding Byzantine territory in Syria. A year earlier, the Sassanid governor of Armenia, [[Chihor-Vishnasp]] of the Suren family, built a fire temple at [[Dvin (ancient city)|Dvin]] near modern [[Yerevan]], and he put to death an influential member of the [[Mamikonian]] family, touching off a revolt which led to the massacre of the Persian governor and his guard in 571, while rebellion also broke out in [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]]. Justin II took advantage of the Armenian revolt to stop his yearly payments to Khosrau I for the defense of the Caucasus passes.

The Armenians were welcomed as allies, and an army was sent into Sassanid territory which besieged Nisibis in 573. However, dissension among the Byzantine generals not only led to an abandonment of the siege, but they in turn were besieged in the city of [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]], which was taken by the Persians who then ravaged Syria, causing Justin II to agree to make annual payments in exchange for a five-year truce on the Mesopotamian front, although the war continued elsewhere. In 576 Khosrau I led his last campaign, an offensive into Anatolia which sacked [[Sivas|Sebasteia]] and [[Malatya|Melitene]], but ended in disaster: defeated outside Melitene, the Persians suffered heavy losses as they fled across the Euphrates under Byzantine attack. Taking advantage of Persian disarray, the Byzantines raided deep into Khosrau's territory, even mounting amphibious attacks across the [[Caspian Sea]]. Khosrau sued for peace, but he decided to continue the war after a victory by his general [[Tamkhosrau]] in Armenia in 577, and fighting resumed in Mesopotamia. The Armenian revolt came to an end with a general amnesty, which brought Armenia back into the Sassanid Empire.<ref name="Frye" />

Around 570, "Ma 'd-Karib", half-brother of the King of Yemen, requested Khosrau I's intervention. Khosrau I sent a fleet and a small army under a commander called [[Vahriz]] to the area near present [[Aden]], and they marched against the capital San'a'l, which was occupied. Saif, son of Mard-Karib, who had accompanied the expedition, became King sometime between 575 and 577. Thus, the Sassanids were able to establish a base in [[south Arabia]] to control the sea trade with the east. Later, the south Arabian kingdom renounced Sassanid overlordship, and another Persian expedition was sent in 598 that successfully annexed southern Arabia as a Sassanid province, which lasted until the time of troubles after Khosrau II.<ref name="Frye" />

Khosrau I's reign witnessed the rise of the dihqans (literally, village lords), the petty landholding nobility who were the backbone of later Sassanid provincial administration and the tax collection system.<ref name="Chamber">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranchamber.com/history/historic_periods.php |title=Iran Chamber Society: The Sassanid Empire, 224–642 AD |publisher=Iranchamber.com |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref> Khosrau I was a great builder, embellishing his capital and founding new towns with the construction of new buildings. He rebuilt the canals and restocked the farms destroyed in the wars. He built strong fortifications at the passes and placed subject tribes in carefully chosen towns on the frontiers to act as guardians against invaders. He was tolerant of all religions, though he decreed that [[Zoroastrianism]] should be the official state religion, and was not unduly disturbed when one of his sons became a Christian.

After Khosrau I, [[Hormizd IV]] (579–590) took the throne. The war with the Byzantines continued to rage intensely but inconclusively until the general [[Bahram Chobin]], dismissed and humiliated by Hormizd, rose in revolt in 589. The following year, Hormizd was overthrown by a palace coup and his son [[Khosrau II]] (590–628) placed on the throne. However, this change of ruler failed to placate Bahram, who defeated Khosrau, forcing him to flee to Byzantine territory, and seized the throne for himself as Bahram VI. Khosrau asked the Byzantine Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] (582–602) for assistance against Bahram, offering to cede the western Caucasus to the Byzantines. To cement the alliance, Khosrau also married Maurice's daughter Miriam. Under the command of Khosrau and the Byzantine generals [[Narses (general under Maurice)|Narses]] and [[John Mystacon]], the new combined Byzantine-Persian army raised a rebellion against Bahram, defeating him at the [[Battle of Blarathon]] in 591. When Khosrau was subsequently restored to power he kept his promise, handing over control of western [[Armenia]] and [[Caucasian Iberia]]. The new peace arrangement allowed the two empires to focus on military matters elsewhere: Khosrau expanded the Sassanid Empire's eastern frontier while Maurice restored Byzantine control of the [[Balkans]].

After Maurice was overthrown and killed by [[Phocas]] (602–610) in 602, however, Khosrau II used the murder of his benefactor as a pretext to begin a new invasion, which benefited from continuing civil war in the Byzantine Empire and met little effective resistance. Khosrau's generals systematically subdued the heavily fortified frontier cities of Byzantine Mesopotamia and Armenia, laying the foundations for unprecedented expansion. The Persians overran [[Syria]] and captured Antioch in 611.

In 613, outside Antioch, the Persian generals [[Shahrbaraz]] and [[Shahin Vahmanzadegan|Shahin]] decisively defeated a major counter-attack led in person by the Byzantine emperor [[Heraclius]]. Thereafter, the Persian advance continued unchecked. [[Jerusalem]] fell in 614, [[Alexandria]] in 619, and the rest of [[Egypt]] by 621. The Sassanid dream of restoring the [[Achaemenid]] boundaries was almost complete, while the [[Byzantine Empire]] was on the verge of collapse. This remarkable peak of expansion was paralleled by a blossoming of [[Iranian art|Persian art]], [[Music of Iran|music]], and [[Iranian architecture|architecture]].

===Decline and fall (622–651)===
{{Main article|Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|Fall of the Sasanian Empire|Muslim conquest of Persia}}

While successful at the first stage (from 602 to 622), the campaign of [[Khosrau II]] had actually exhausted the Persian army and Persian treasuries. In an effort to rebuild the national treasuries, Khosrau overtaxed the population. Thus, while his empire was on the verge of total defeat, [[Heraclius]] (610–641) drew on all his diminished and devastated empire's remaining resources, reorganized his armies, and mounted a remarkable, risky counter-offensive. Between 622 and 627, he campaigned against the Persians in Anatolia and the Caucasus, winning a string of victories against Persian forces under [[Shahrbaraz]], [[Shahin Vahmanzadegan|Shahin]], and [[Shahraplakan]] (whose competition to claim the glory of personally defeating the Byzantine emperor contributed to their failure), and Khusrau, sacking the great Zoroastrian temple at [[Takht-e Soleymān|Ganzak]], and securing [[Third Perso-Turkic War|assistance]] from the [[Khazars]] and [[Western Turkic Khaganate]].

[[File:Moldovita murals 2010 16.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|Siege of Constantinople in 626]] by the combined Sassanid, Avar, and Slavic forces depicted on the [[murals]] of the [[Moldovița Monastery]], [[Romania]]]]

As a response, Khusrau, in coordination with [[Pannonian Avars|Avar]] and [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] forces, [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|launched a siege]] on the Byzantine capital of [[Constantinople]] in 626. The Sassanids led by Shahrbaraz attacked the city the eastern side of the [[Bosphorus]], while the Avar and Slavic allies invaded from the western side. Attempts to ferry the Persian forces across to aid their Slavic and Avar allies, the former being by far the strongest in siege warfare, were blocked by the [[Byzantine navy|Byzantine fleet]] who heavily guarded the Bosphorus and the siege ended in failure. In 627-628, Heraclius mounted a winter invasion of Mesopotamia and, despite the departure of his Khazar allies, defeated a Persian army commanded by [[Rhahzadh]] in the [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|Battle of Nineveh]]. He then marched down the Tigris, devastating the country and sacking Khosrau's palace at [[Dastagird|Dastagerd]]. He was prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the [[Nahrawan Canal]] and conducted further raids before withdrawing up the [[Diyala River|Diyala]] into north-western Iran.<ref name="HBS">Haldon (1997), 46; Baynes (1912), ''passim''; Speck (1984), 178</ref>

[[File:BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|180px|thumb|left|Queen [[Boran]], daughter of [[Khosrau II]], the last woman and one of the last rulers on the throne of the Sasanian Empire, she reigned from 17 June 629 to 16 June 630]]

The impact of Heraclius's victories, the devastation of the richest territories of the Sassanid Empire, and the humiliating destruction of high-profile targets such as Ganzak and Dastagerd fatally undermined Khosrau's prestige and his support among the Persian aristocracy. In early 628, he was overthrown and murdered by his son [[Kavadh II]] (628), who immediately brought an end to the war, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories. In 629, Heraclius restored the [[True Cross]] to [[Jerusalem]] in a majestic ceremony.<ref name="HBS" /> Kavadh died within months, and chaos and civil war followed. Over a period of four years and five successive kings, including two daughters of Khosrau II and ''[[spahbed]]'' Shahrbaraz, the Sassanid Empire weakened considerably. The power of the central authority passed into the hands of the generals. It would take several years for a strong king to emerge from a series of coups, and the Sassanids never had time to recover fully.<ref name="Chamber" />

[[File:SassanidEmpirebeforeArabConquest.png|thumb|350px|Extent of the Sasanian Empire in 632]]
In early 632, a grandson of Khosrau I who had lived in hiding in [[Estakhr]], [[Yazdegerd III]], ascended the throne. The same year, the first raiders from the [[Arab]] tribes, newly united by [[Islam]], arrived in Persian territory. According to Howard-Johnston, years of warfare had exhausted both the Byzantines and the Persians. The Sassanids were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation, religious unrest, rigid social stratification, the increasing power of the provincial landholders, and a rapid turnover of rulers, facilitating the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]].<ref name = HJ291>{{Harvnb|Howard-Johnston|2006|p=291}}</ref>

The Sassanids never mounted a truly effective resistance to the pressure applied by the initial Arab armies. Yazdegerd was a boy at the mercy of his advisers and incapable of uniting a vast country crumbling into small feudal kingdoms, despite the fact that the Byzantines, under similar pressure from the newly expansive Arabs, no longer threatened. Caliph [[Abu Bakr]]'s commander [[Khalid ibn Walid]], once one of [[Muhammad]]'s chosen companions-in-arms and leader of the Arab army, moved to capture [[Iraq]] in a series of lightning battles. Redeployed to the Syrian front against the Byzantines in June 634, Khalid's successor in Iraq failed him, and Muslims were defeated in the [[Battle of the Bridge]] in 634, which resulted in a Sassanid victory. However, the Arab threat did not stop there and reappeared shortly from the disciplined armies of Khalid ibn Walid.

In 637, a Muslim army under the Caliph [[Umar|Umar ibn al-Khattāb]] defeated a larger Persian force led by general [[Rostam Farrokhzad]] at the plains of [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah|al-Qādisiyyah]] and advanced on Ctesiphon, which fell after a prolonged siege. Yazdegerd fled eastward from Ctesiphon, leaving behind him most of the Empire's vast treasury. The Arabs captured Ctesiphon shortly afterward, acquiring a powerful financial resource and leaving the Sassanid government strapped for funds. A number of Sassanid governors attempted to combine their forces to throw back the invaders, but the effort was crippled by the lack of a strong central authority, and the governors were defeated at the [[Battle of Nihawānd]]. The empire, with its military command structure non-existent, its non-noble troop levies decimated, its financial resources effectively destroyed, and the [[Sassanid army#Azadan nobility|Asawaran (Azatan)]] knightly caste destroyed piecemeal, was now utterly helpless in the face of the invaders.

Upon hearing of the defeat in Nihawānd, Yazdegerd along with [[Farrukhzad]] and with some of the Persian nobles fled further inland to the eastern province of [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]]. Yazdegerd was assassinated by a miller in [[Merv]] in late 651, while some of the nobles settled in [[Central Asia]], where they contributed greatly to spreading Persian culture and language in those regions and to the establishment of the first native Iranian Islamic dynasty, the [[Samanid dynasty]], which sought to revive Sassanid traditions.

The abrupt fall of the Sassanid Empire was completed in a period of five years, and most of its territory was absorbed into the Islamic [[caliphate]]; however, many Iranian cities resisted and fought against the invaders several times. Islamic caliphates repeatedly suppressed revolts in cities such as [[Rey, Iran|Rey]], [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], and [[Hamadan]].<ref>Zarinkoob, pp. 305–317</ref> The local population was initially under little pressure to convert to Islam, remaining as [[dhimmi]] subjects of the Muslim state and paying a [[jizya]].<ref>Bashear, Suliman, ''Arabs and others in Early Islam'', p. 117</ref> Jizya practically replaced poll taxes imposed by the Sassanids. In addition, the old Sassanid "land tax" (known in Arabic as ''Kharaj'') was also adopted. Caliph Umar is said to have occasionally set up a commission to survey the taxes, to judge if they were more than the land could bear.<ref>''The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects''. A. S. Tritton, pg.139.</ref> Conversion of the Persian population to Islam would take place gradually, particularly as Persian-speaking elites attempted to gain positions of prestige under the [[Abbasid Caliphate]].

===Descendants===
It is believed that the following dynasties and noble-families have ancestors among the Sassanian rulers:

* The [[Dabuyid dynasty]] (642–760) descendant of [[Djamasp]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dabuyids-the-dynasty-of-espahbads-ruling-tabarestan-until-its-conquest-by-the-muslims-in-144-761 |title=DABUYIDS – Encyclopaedia Iranica |publisher=Iranicaonline.org |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref>
* The [[Paduspanids]] (665-1598) of [[Mazandaran Province|Mazandaran]], descendant of [[Djamasp]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baduspanids |title=BADUSPANIDS – Encyclopaedia Iranica |publisher=Iranicaonline.org |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref>
* The [[Shahs of Shirwan]] (1100–1382) from [[Hormizd IV]]'s line.<ref>Stokvis A.M.H.J., pp. 112, 129.</ref>
* The [[Banu Munajjim]] (9th-10th century) from Mihr Gushnasp, an Sasanian prince.
* The [[Ahmad ibn Sahl|Kamkarian family]] (9th-10th century) a ''[[dehqan]]'' family descended from [[Yazdegerd III]].
* The [[Mikalids]] (9th-11th century) a family descended from the Sogdian ruler [[Divashtich]], who was in turn a descendant of [[Bahram V|Bahram V Gur]].

==Government==
The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Parthian Arsacids, with the capital at Ctesiphon in the [[Asoristan]] province. In administering this empire, Sassanid rulers took the title of ''shahanshah'' (King of Kings), becoming the central overlords and also assumed guardianship of the [[atar|sacred fire]], the symbol of the national religion. This symbol is explicit on Sassanid coins where the reigning monarch, with his crown and regalia of office, appears on the obverse, backed by the sacred fire, the symbol of the national religion, on the coin's reverse.<ref>[http://ecai.org/sasanianweb/] Guitty Azarpay ''"The Near East in Late Antiquity The Sasanian Empire"''</ref> Sassanid queens had the title of [[Banbishnan banbishn]] (Queen of Queens).

On a smaller scale, the territory might also be ruled by a number of petty rulers from a noble family, known as ''[[shahrdar]]'', overseen directly by the ''shahanshah''. The districts of the provinces were ruled by a ''[[Shahrab (office)|shahrab]]'' and a ''[[Mobad|mowbed]]'' (chief priest). The mowbed's job was to deal with estates and other things relating to legal matters. {{sfn|Daryaee|2008|p=125}} Sasanian rule was characterized by considerable centralization, ambitious urban planning, agricultural development, and technological improvements.<ref name="Chamber" /> Below the king, a powerful bureaucracy carried out much of the affairs of government; the head of the bureaucracy was the ''[[wuzurg framadar]]'' ([[vizier]] or [[prime minister]]). Within this bureaucracy the Zoroastrian priesthood was immensely powerful. The head of the Magi priestly class, the ''[[mowbedan mowbed]]'', along with the commander-in-chief, the ''[[spahbed]]'', the head of traders and merchants syndicate ''Ho Tokhshan Bod'' and minister of agriculture (''[[wastaryoshan-salar]]''), who was also head of farmers, were, below the emperor, the most powerful men of the Sassanid state.<ref>Sarfaraz, p. 344</ref>

The Sassanian rulers always considered the advice of their ministers. A Muslim historian, [[Masudi]], praised the "excellent administration of the Sasanian kings, their well-ordered policy, their care for their subjects, and the prosperity of their domains". In normal times, the monarchical office was hereditary, but might be transferred by the king to a younger son; in two instances the supreme power was held by queens. When no direct heir was available, the nobles and prelates chose a ruler, but their choice was restricted to members of the royal family.<ref name="Durant"/>

The Sasanian nobility was a mixture of old Parthian clans, Persian aristocratic families, and noble families from subjected territories. Many new noble families had risen after the dissolution of the Parthian dynasty, while several of the once-dominant [[Seven Parthian clans]] remained of high importance. At the court of Ardashir I, the old Arsacid families of the [[House of Karen]] and the [[House of Suren]], along with several other families, the Varazes and Andigans, held positions of great honor. Alongside these Iranian and non-Iranian noble families, the kings of [[Merv]], [[Abarshahr]], [[Kirman (Sasanian province)|Kirman]], Sakastan, [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]], and [[Adiabene]], who are mentioned as holding positions of honor amongst the nobles, appeared at the court of the ''shahanshah''. Indeed, the extensive domains of the Surens, Karens and Varazes, had become part of the original Sassanid state as semi-independent states. Thus, the noble families that attended at the court of the Sassanid empire continued to be ruling lines in their own right, although subordinate to the ''shahanshah''.

In general, ''[[Wuzurgan]]'' from Iranian families held the most powerful positions in the imperial administration, including governorships of border provinces (''[[marzban]]''). Most of these positions were patrimonial, and many were passed down through a single family for generations. The ''marzbans'' of greatest seniority were permitted a silver throne, while ''marzbans'' of the most strategic border provinces, such as the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]] province, were allowed a golden throne.<ref>Nicolle, p. 10</ref> In military campaigns, the regional ''marzbans'' could be regarded as field marshals, while lesser ''[[spahbed]]s'' could command a field army.<ref name="Nicolle, p. 14">Nicolle, p. 14</ref>

Culturally, the Sassanids implemented a system of social stratification. This system was supported by Zoroastrianism, which was established as the state religion. Other religions appear to have been largely tolerated, although this claim has been debated.<ref>Wiesehöfer, ''Ancient Persia'', or the ''Cambridge History of Iran'', vol. 3</ref> Sassanid emperors consciously sought to resuscitate [[Persian Empire|Persian]] traditions and to obliterate Greek cultural influence.<ref name="Chamber" />

===Sasanian military===
{{Main article|Military of the Sasanian Empire}}
[[File:Sassanid army helmet by Nickmard Khoey.jpg|thumb|[[Military of the Sasanian Empire|Sasanian army]] helmet]]
The active army of the Sassanid Empire originated from [[Ardashir I]], the first ''shahanshah'' of the empire. Ardashir restored the Achaemenid military organizations, retained the [[Cataphract|Parthian cavalry]] model, and employed new types of armour and siege warfare techniques.

====Role of priests====
The relationship between priests and warriors was important, because the concept of Ērānshahr had been revived by the priests. Without this relationship, the Sassanid Empire would not have survived in its beginning stages. Because of this relationship between the warriors and the priests, religion and state were considered inseparable in the Zoroastrian religion. However, it is this same relationship that caused the weakening of the Empire, when each group tried to impose their power onto the other. Disagreements between the priests and the warriors led to fragmentation within the empire, which led to its downfall.<ref name="Daryaee, Touraj">{{cite book|last=Daryaee|first=Touraj|title=Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire|year=2009|publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd|location=New York NY|pages=45–51}}</ref>

====Infantry====
The [[Paygan]] formed the bulk of the Sassanid infantry, and were often recruited from the peasant population. Each unit was headed by an officer called a "[[Paygan-salar]]," which meant "commander of the infantry" and their main task was to guard the baggage train, serve as pages to the [[Asvaran]] (a higher rank), storm fortification walls, undertake entrenchment projects, and excavate mines.<ref name=source>{{cite book|title=Sassanian elite cavalry AD 224-642|author1=Kaveh Farrokh |author2=Angus McBride |publisher=Osprey Publishing|date=July 13, 2005|page=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aQspOf291_cC&pg=PA23&dq=paighan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ioIiT_ydEsrl0QGH2szaCA&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=paighan&f=false}}</ref>

Those serving in the infantry were fitted with shields and lances. To make the size of their army larger, the Sassanids added soldiers provided by the [[Media (region)|Medes]] and the [[Dailamites]] to their own. The Medes provided the Sassanid army with high-quality javelin throwers, slingers and heavy infantry. Iranian infantry are described by [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] as "armed like gladiators" and "obey orders like so many horse-boys".<ref>Vadim Mikhaĭlovich Masson, ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia'', Vol.II, (UNESCO, 1996), 52.[https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA52&dq=Ammianus+Marcellinus+Persian+infantry+disciplined&hl=en&ei=0Ct1TuaAHM_fsQK30c2LBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Ammianus%20Marcellinus%20Persian%20infantry%20disciplined&f=false]</ref>  The Dailamite people also served as infantry and were Iranian people who lived mainly within Gilan, Iranian Azerbaijan and Mazandaran. They are reported as having fought with weapons such as daggers, swords and javelins and reputed to have been recognized by Romans for their skills and hardiness in close-quarter combat. One account of Dailamites recounted their participation in an invasion of Yemen where 800 of them were led by the Dailamite officer [[Vahriz]].<ref name=source/> Vahriz would eventually defeat the Arab forces in Yemen and its capital [[Sana'a]] making it a Sasanian vassal until the invasion of Persia by Arabs.<ref>{{cite book|title=Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war|author=Kaveh Farrokh|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2007|page=237|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p7kltwf9yrwC&pg=PA237&dq=Vahriz+defeat+Yemen&hl=en&sa=X&ei=AYkiT4aZCcTm0QHC58GwCA&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Vahriz%20defeat%20Yemen&f=false}}</ref>

====Navy====
The [[Sasanian navy]] was an important constituent of the Sasanian military from the time that Ardashir I conquered the Arab side of the [[Persian gulf]]. Because controlling the Persian gulf was an economic necessity, the Sasanian navy worked to keep it safe from piracy, prevent Roman encroachment, and keep the Arab tribes from getting hostile. However, it is believed by many historians that the naval force could not have been a strong one, as the men serving in the navy were those who were confined in prisons.<ref>{{cite book|last=Daryaee|first=Touraj|title=Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire|year=2009|publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd|location=New York NY|pages=46–47}}</ref> The leader of the navy bore the title of ''[[Navbed|nāvbed]]''.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|p=47}}

====Cavalry====
[[File:Knight-Iran.JPG|thumb|A Sassanid king posing as an armored cavalryman, [[Taq-e Bostan]], Iran]]

The cavalry used during the Sassanid Empire were two types of heavy cavalry units: [[Clibanarii]] and [[Cataphract]]s. The first cavalry force, composed of elite noblemen trained since youth for military service, was supported by light cavalry, infantry and archers.<ref>{{cite book|title=Why Europe?: The Medieval Origins of Its Special Path|author1=Michael Mitterauer |author2=Gerald Chapple |publisher=University of Chicago Press|date=July 15, 2010|page=106|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IU9fduDRIMC&pg=PA106&dq=sassanid+cavalry&hl=en&sa=X&ei=K4siT6WoIufq0gHylrGHCQ&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=sassanid%20cavalry&f=false}}</ref> Mercenaries and tribal people of the empire, including the Turks, Kushans, Sarmatians, Khazars, Georgians, and Armenians were included in these first cavalry units. The second cavalry involved the use of the [[Persian war elephants|war elephants]]. In fact, it was their specialty to deploy elephants as cavalry support.

Unlike the Parthians, the Sassanids developed advanced [[siege engines]]. The development of siege weapons was a useful weapon during conflicts with Rome, in which success hinged upon the ability to seize cities and other fortified points; conversely, the Sassanids also developed a number of techniques for defending their own cities from attack. The Sassanid army was much like the preceding Parthian army, although some of the Sassanid's heavy cavalry were equipped with lances, while Parthian armies were heavily equipped with bows.<ref>{{cite book|last=Yarshater|first=Ehsan|title=The Cambridge History of Iran Volume 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods|year=1983|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|pages=Chapter 15}}</ref>  The Roman historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]]'s description of Shapur II's clibanarii cavalry manifestly shows how heavily equipped it was, and how only a portion were spear equipped:

{{Cquote|''All the companies were clad in iron, and all parts of their bodies were covered with thick plates, so fitted that the stiff-joints conformed with those of their limbs; and the forms of human faces were so skillfully fitted to their heads, that since their entire body was covered with metal, arrows that fell upon them could lodge only where they could see a little through tiny openings opposite the pupil of the eye, or where through the tip of their nose they were able to get a little breath. Of these, some who were armed with pikes, stood so motionless that you would have thought them held fast by clamps of bronze.''}}

Horsemen in the Sassanid cavalry lacked a stirrup. Instead, they used a war saddle which had a cantle at the back and two guard clamps which curved across the top of the rider's thighs. This allowed the horsemen to stay in the saddle at all times during the battle, especially during violent encounters.<ref>{{cite web|last=Shahbazi|first=A. Sh.|title=History of Iran: Sassanian Army|url=http://www.iranchamber.com/history/sassanids/sassanian_army.php|accessdate=10 December 2012}}</ref>

The Byzantine emperor Maurikios also emphasizes [[Strategikon of Maurice|in his ''Strategikon'']] that many of the Sassanid heavy cavalry did not carry spears, relying on their bows as their primary weapons. However the Taq-i Bustan reliefs and Al-Tabari's famed list of equipment required for dihqan knights which included the lance, provide a contrast. What is certain is that the horseman's paraphernalia was extensive.

The amount of money involved in maintaining a warrior of the [[Sassanid army#Azadan nobility|Asawaran (Azatan)]] knightly caste required a small estate, and the Asawaran (Azatan) knightly caste received that from the throne, and in return, were the throne's most notable defenders in time of war.

==Relations with neighboring regimes==
{{See also|Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids|Roman-Persian Wars|Byzantine-Sassanid Wars}}

===Frequent warfare with the Romans and to a lesser extent others===
[[File:Cameo Shapur Valerianus Bab360 CdM Paris.jpg|thumb|A fine cameo showing an equestrian combat of Shapur I and Byzantine emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] in which the Roman emperor is seized following the [[Battle of Edessa]], according to Shapur's own statement, "with our own hand", in year 256]]

The Sassanids, like the Parthians, were in constant hostilities with the [[Roman Empire]]. The Sassanids, who thus succeeded the Parthians, were recognized as one of the leading world powers alongside its neighboring archrival the Roman-Byzantine Empire, for a period of more than 400 years.<ref name="EIr-Sasanian"/><ref name="Norman A. Stillman pp 22"/><ref name="Byzantine Studies 2006, pp 29"/> Following the division of the Roman Empire in 395, the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] (Byzantine Empire), with its capital at [[Constantinople]], continue as Persia's principal western enemy, and main enemy in general. Hostilities between the two empires became more frequent.<ref name="Chamber" />
The Sassanids, similar to the Roman Empire, were in a constant state of conflict with neighboring kingdoms and nomadic hordes. Although the threat of nomadic incursions could never be fully resolved, the Sassanids generally dealt much more successfully with these matters than did the Romans, due to their policy of making coordinated campaigns against threatening nomads.<ref>Nicolle, pp. 15–18</ref>

The last of the many and frequent wars with the Byzantines, the climactic [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]], which included the [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|siege of the Byzantine capital Constantinople]], ended with both rivalling sides having drastically exhausted their human and material resources. Furthermore, [[Fall of the Sasanian Empire#Social problems|social conflict within the Empire]] had considerably weakened it even further.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Liska|title=Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics|year=1998|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Pub Incorporated|isbn=978-0-8476-8680-3|page=170}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/stearns_awl/chapter12/objectives/deluxe-content.html |title=The Rise and Spread of Islam, The Arab Empire of the Umayyads -Weakness of the Adversary Empires |publisher=Occawlonline.pearsoned.com |accessdate=21 June 2013}}</ref> Consequently, they were vulnerable to the sudden emergence of the Islamic [[Rashidun Caliphate]], whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the war. The [[Rashidun army|Muslim forces]] swiftly [[Muslim conquests|conquered]] the [[Islamic conquest of Persia|entire Sasanian Empire]] and [[Byzantine–Arab Wars|deprived]] the Byzantine Empire of its [[Muslim conquest of Syria|territories in the Levant]], [[Arab conquest of Armenia|the Caucasus]], [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Egypt]], and [[Umayyad conquest of North Africa|North Africa]]. Over the following centuries, half the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the entire Sasanian Empire came under Muslim rule.

In general, over the span of the centuries, in the west, Sassanid territory abutted that of the large and stable Roman state, but to the east, its nearest neighbors were the [[Kushan Empire]] and nomadic tribes such as the [[Hephthalite|White Huns]]. The construction of fortifications such as [[Tus citadel]] or the city of [[Nishapur]], which later became a center of learning and trade, also assisted in defending the eastern provinces from attack.

In south and central Arabia, [[Bedouin|Bedouin Arab]] tribes occasionally raided the Sassanid empire. The [[Lakhmids|Kingdom of Al-Hirah]], a Sassanid vassal kingdom, was established to form a buffer zone between the empire's heartland and the Bedouin tribes. The dissolution of the Kingdom of Al-Hirah by Khosrau II in 602, contributed greatly to decisive Sassanid defeats suffered against Bedouin Arabs later in the century. These defeats resulted in a sudden takeover of the Sassanid empire by Bedouin tribes under the Islamic banner.

[[File:Derbent winter.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sassanian]] fortress in [[Derbent]], [[Dagestan]]. Now inscribed on [[Russia]]'s [[UNESCO]] world heritage list since 2003.]]

In the north, [[Khazar]]s and other Turkic nomads frequently assaulted the northern provinces of the empire. They plundered [[Media (region)|Media]] in 634. Shortly thereafter, the Persian army defeated them and drove them out. The Sassanids built numerous fortifications in the Caucasus region to halt these attacks, of which perhaps the most notably are the imposing fortifications built in [[Derbent]] ([[Dagestan]], [[North Caucasus]], now a part of [[Russia]]) that to a large extent, have remained intact up to this day.

On the eastern side of the Caspian Sea, the Sassanians erected the [[Great Wall of Gorgan]], a 200&nbsp;km-long defensive structure probably aimed to protect the empire from northern peoples, such as the [[White Huns]].

===War with Axum===
{{main article|Ethiopian–Persian wars}}
[[File:Khosrau I Textile.jpg|thumb|Egyptian woven pattern woolen curtain or trousers, which was a copy of a Sassanid silk import, which was in turn based on a fresco of King [[Khosrau II]] fighting [[Axum]] [[Ethiopia]]n forces in [[Yemen]], 5–6th century]]
In 522, before Khosrau's reign, a group of monophysite [[Kingdom of Axum|Axumites]] led an attack on the dominant [[Himyarite Kingdom|Himyarites]] of southern Arabia. The local Arab leader was able to resist the attack but appealed to the Sassanians for aid, while the Axumites subsequently turned towards the Byzantines for help. The Axumites sent another force across the [[Red Sea]] and this time successfully killed the Arab leader and replaced him with an Axumite man to be king of the region.<ref name="FryeAncient">Frye Ancient Iran</ref>

In 531, Justinian suggested that the Axumites of [[Yemen]] should cut out the Persians from Indian trade by maritime trade with the Indians. The Ethiopians never met this request because an Axumite general named Abraha took control of the Yemenite throne and created an independent nation.<ref name="FryeAncient" /> After Abraha's death one of his sons, Ma'd-Karib, went into exile while his half-brother took the throne. After being denied by Justinian, Ma'd-Karib sought help from Khosrau, who sent a small fleet and army under commander [[Vahriz]] to depose the new king of Yemen. After capturing the capital city San'a'l, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne.<ref name="FryeAncient" />

Justinian was ultimately responsible for Sassanian maritime presence in Yemen. By not providing the Yemenite Arabs support, Khosrau was able to help Ma'd-Karib and subsequently established Yemen as a principality of the Sassanian Empire.<ref>Farrokh 2007, 237</ref>

===Relations with China===
{{Main article|Iran-China relations}}

Like their predecessors the Parthians, the Sassanid Empire carried out active foreign relations with China, and ambassadors from Persia frequently traveled to China. Chinese documents report on thirteen Sassanid embassies to China. Commercially, land and sea trade with China was important to both the Sassanid and Chinese Empires. Large numbers of Sassanid coins have been found in southern China, confirming maritime trade.

On different occasions, Sassanid kings sent their most talented Persian musicians and dancers to the Chinese imperial court at [[Luoyang]] during the [[Jin Dynasty (265–420)|Jin]] and [[Northern Wei]] dynasties, and to [[Chang'an]] during the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] dynasties. Both empires benefited from trade along the [[Silk Road]] and shared a common interest in preserving and protecting that trade. They cooperated in guarding the trade routes through central Asia, and both built outposts in border areas to keep caravans safe from nomadic tribes and bandits.

Politically, there is evidence of several Sassanid and Chinese efforts in forging alliances against the common enemy, the Hephthalites. Upon the rise of the nomadic [[Göktürks]] in Inner Asia, there is also what looks like a collaboration between China and Sassanid to defuse Turkic advances. Documents from Mt. Mogh talk about the presence of a Chinese general in the service of the king of [[Sogdiana]] at the time of the Arab invasions.

Following the invasion of Iran by Muslim Arabs, [[Peroz III]], son of Yazdegerd III, escaped along with a few Persian nobles and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court. Both Peroz and his son [[Narsieh]] (Chinese ''neh-shie'') were given high titles at the Chinese court. On at least two occasions, the last possibly in 670, Chinese troops were sent with Peroz in order to restore him to the Sassanid throne with mixed results, one possibly ending in a short rule of Peroz in Sakastan, from which we have a few remaining numismatic evidences. Narsieh later attained the position of a commander of the Chinese imperial guards, and his descendants lived in China as respected princes. The sister of the [[Sassanian]] Prince [[Peroz III]] was married into the imperial court, which allowed Sassanian refugees fleeing from the Arab conquest to settle in China.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/?id=p7kltwf9yrwC&pg=PA274&dq=pirooz+sister+was+married+to+the+Chinese+emperor#v=onepage&q=pirooz's%20sister%20was%20married%20to%20the%20Chinese%20emperor&f=false|title=Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war|author=Kaveh Farrokh|year=2007|publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=|page=274|isbn=1-84603-108-7|pages=|accessdate=2010-06-29}}</ref> The Emperor of China at this time was [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang]].

===Relations with India===
{{Main article|Indo-Sasanians}}
[[File:BahramITheIndoSasanian.jpg|thumb|Coin of the Indo-Sassanid ''kushansha'' Varhran I (early 4th century)<br>
''Obv:'' King Varhran I with characteristic head-dress<br>
''Rev:'' [[Shiva]] and bull]]

Following the conquest of Iran and neighboring regions, [[Shapur I]] extended his authority eastwards into the northwestern [[Indian subcontinent]] (Pakistan and Afghanistan). The previously autonomous [[Kushan]]s were obliged to accept his suzerainty. These were the western Kushans with control of Afghanistan while the eastern Kushans were still active in India. Although the Kushan empire declined at the end of the 3rd century, to be replaced by the Indian [[Gupta Empire]] in the 4th century, it is clear that the Sassanids remained relevant in India's northwest throughout this period.

Persia and northwestern India, the latter that made up formerly part of the Kushans, engaged in cultural as well as political intercourse during this period, as certain Sassanid practices spread into the Kushan territories. In particular, the Kushans were influenced by the Sassanid conception of kingship, which spread through the trade of Sassanid silverware and textiles depicting emperors hunting or dispensing justice.

This cultural interchange did not, however, spread Sassanid religious practices or attitudes to the Kushans. While the Sassanids always adhered to a stated policy of religious proselytization, and sporadically engaged in persecution or forced conversion of minority religions, the Kushans preferred to adopt a policy of religious tolerance.

Lower-level cultural interchanges also took place between India and Persia during this period. For example, Persians imported the early form of [[chess]], the ''[[chaturanga]]'' (Middle Persian: ''[[chatrang]]'') from India. In exchange, Persians introduced [[backgammon]] (''Nēw-Ardašēr'') to India.

During Khosrau I's reign, many books were brought from India and translated into [[Middle Persian]]. Some of these later found their way into the literature of the [[Islamic world]] and [[Arabic literature]]. A notable example of this was the translation of the Indian ''[[Panchatantra]]'' by one of Khosrau's ministers, [[Borzuya]]. This translation, known as the ''Kalīlag ud Dimnag'', later made its way into the Arabic literature and Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Zarinkoob|p=239}}</ref> The details of Burzoe's legendary journey to India and his daring acquisition of the Panchatantra are written in full details in [[Ferdowsi]]'s [[Shahnameh]], which says:

{{Cquote|''In Indian books, Borzuya read that on a mountain in that land there grows a plant which when sprinkled over the dead revives them. Borzuya asked [[Khosrau I]] for permission to travel to India to obtain the plant. After a fruitless search, he was led to an ascetic who revealed the secret of the plant to him: The "plant" was word, the "mountain" learning, and the "dead" the ignorant. He told Borzuya of a book, the remedy of ignorance, called the [[Panchatantra|Kalila]], which was kept in a treasure chamber. The king of India gave Borzuya permission to read the [[Panchatantra|Kalila]], provided that he did not make a copy of it. Borzuya accepted the condition but each day memorized a chapter of the book. When he returned to his room he would record what he had memorized that day, thus creating a copy of the book, which he sent to [[Sassanid Empire|Iran]]. In Iran, [[Bozorgmehr]] translated the book into [[Middle Persian|Pahlavi]] and, at Borzuya's request, named the first chapter after him.''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/borzuya-also-burzoe-a-physician-of-the-time-of-kosrow-i- |title=BORZŪYA – Encyclopaedia Iranica |publisher=Iranicaonline.org |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref>}}

==Society==

===Urbanism and Nomadism===
In contrast to Parthian society, the Sassanids renewed emphasis on a [[Charismatic authority|charismatic]] and centralized government. In Sassanid theory, the ideal society could maintain stability and justice, and the necessary instrument for this was a strong monarch.<ref name="Daniel, p. 57">Daniel, p. 57</ref> Thus, the Sasanians aimed to be an [[Urbanism|urban]] empire, which were quite successful at. During the late Sasanian period, Mesopotamia had the largest population density in the [[Middle Ages|medieval world]].{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=39-40}} This can be credited to, among other things, the Sasanians founding and re-founding a number of cities, which is talked about in the surviving Middle Persian text [[Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr]] (the provincial capitals of Iran).{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=39-40}} Ardashir I himself built and re-built many cities, which he named after himself, such as [[Veh-Ardashir]] in [[Asoristan]], [[Firuzabad, Fars|Ardashir-Khwarrah]] in [[Fars Province|Pars]]  and [[Vahman-Ardashir]] in [[Meshan]]. During the Sasanian period, many cities with the name “Iran-khwarrah" were established. This was because Sasanians wanted to revive [[Avestan|Avesta]] ideology.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=39-40}}

Many of these cities, both new and old, were populated not only by native ethnic groups, such as the Iranians or Syriacs, but also by Roman prisoners of war, such as [[Goths]], [[Slavs]], [[Latin people|Latins]], and others.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=39-40}} Many of these prisoners were experienced workers, who were used to build things such as cities, bridges, and dams. This allowed the Sasanians to become familiar with Roman technology. The impact these foreigners made on the economy was very important, but many of them were Christians, they helped accelerate the spread of the religion throughout the empire.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=39-40}}

Unlike the amount of information about the settled people of the Sasanian Empire, there is little about the nomadic/unsettled ones. It is known that they were called "Kurds" by the Sasanians, and that they regularly served the Sasanian military. Particularly the [[Dailamite]] and [[Gilaki people|Gilani]] nomads. This way of handling the nomads continued into the Islamic period, where the service of the Dailamites and Gilanis continued unabated.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=40-41}}

===Shahanshah===
[[Image:Head of king Met 65.126.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Bust of a Sasanian king, most likely [[Shapur II]].]]
The head of the Sasanian Empire was the ''[[shahanshah]]'' (king of kings), also simply known as the ''shah'' (king). His health and welfare was always important and the phrase “May you be immortal" was used to reply to him with. By looking on the Sasanian coins which appeared from the 6th-century and afterwards, a moon and sun is noticeable. The meaning of the moon and sun, in the words of the Iranian historian [[Touraj Daryaee]], “suggest that the king was at the center of the world and the sun and moon revolved around him. In effect he was the “king of the four corners of the world," which was an old Mesopotamian idea."{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|p=41}} The king saw all other rulers, such as the Romans, Turks, and Chinese, as being beneath him. The king wore colorful clothes, makeup, a heavy crown, while his beard was decorated with gold. The early Sasanian kings considered themselves of divine descent; they called themselves for “bay" (divine).{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|p=42}}

When the king went to the publicity, he was hidden behind a curtain,{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|p=41}} and had some of his men in front of him, whose duty was to keep the masses away from the king and to make his way clear.{{sfn|Morony|2005|p=92}} When one came to the king, he/she had to prostrate before him, also known as ''[[proskynesis]]''. The king was guarded by a group of royal guards, known as the ''[[Pushtigban Body Guards|pushtigban]]''. On other occasions, the king was protected by a group of palace guards, known as the ''[[darigan]]''. Both of these groups were enlisted from royal families of the Sasanian Empire,{{sfn|Morony|2005|p=92}} and were under the command of the ''[[hazarbed]]'', who was in charge of the king's safety, controlled the entrance of the kings palace, presented visitors to the king, and was allowed to be given military command or used in negotiations. The ''hazarbed'' was also allowed in some cases to serve as the royal executioner.{{sfn|Morony|2005|p=92}} During [[Nowruz]] (Iranian new year) and [[Mihragan]] ([[Mithra|Mihr's day]]), the king would hold a speech.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|p=42}}

===Class division===
Sassanid society was immensely complex, with separate systems of social organization governing numerous different groups within the empire.<ref name="Nicolle, p. 11">Nicolle, p. 11</ref> Historians believe society comprised four<ref>
These four are the three common "Indo-Euoropean"  [[Trifunctional hypothesis|social tripartition]] common among ancient Iranian, Indian and Romans with one extra Iranian element (from Yashna xix/17). cf. Frye, p. 54.
</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Why the Middle East Lagged Behind: The Case of Iran|page=72|author=Kāẓim ʻAlamdārī|publisher=University Press of America}}</ref>
[[social class]]es:

# Asronan (priests)
# Arteshtaran (warriors)
# Wastaryoshan (commoners)
# Hutukhshan (artisans)

At the center of the Sasanian [[caste]] system the ''shahanshah'' ruled over all the nobles.<ref name="Zarinkoob, p. 201">Zarinkoob, p. 201</ref> The royal princes, petty rulers, great landlords and priests, together constituted a privileged stratum, and were identified as ''[[wuzurgan]]'', or grandees. This social system appears to have been fairly rigid.<ref name="Chamber"/>

The Sasanian caste system outlived the empire, continuing in the early Islamic period.<ref name="Zarinkoob, p. 201"/>

===Slavery===
In general, mass slavery was never practiced by the Iranians, and in many cases the situation and lives of semi-slaves (prisoners of war) were, in fact, better than those of the commoner.<ref>Farazmand, Ali (1998) “Persian/Iranian Administrative Tradition", in Jay M. Shafritz (Editor), ''International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration''. Boulder, CO: [[Westview Press]], pp 1640–1645&nbsp;– Excerpt: "Persians never practiced mass slavery, and in many cases the situations and lives of semi-slaves (prisoners of war) were in fact better than the common citizens of Persia." (pg 1642)</ref> The term "slave" was also used on people who were in debt and had to use some of their time to serve in a [[Fire temple|fire-temple]].{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=58-59}}

The most common slaves in the Sasanian Empire were the household servants, who worked in private estates and at the fire-temples. Usage of a woman slave in a home was common, and her master had outright control over her and could even produce children with her if he wanted to. Slaves also received wages and were able to have their own families whether they were female or male.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=58-59}} Harming a slave was considered a crime, and not even the king himself was allowed to do it.<ref name="D. Irani, Morris Silver 1995, p.87">K. D. Irani, Morris Silver, ''Social Justice in the Ancient World '', 224 pp., Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995, ISBN 0-313-29144-6, ISBN 978-0-313-29144-9 (see p.87)</ref>

The master of a slave was allowed to free the person when he wanted to, which, no matter what faith the slave believed in, was considered a good deed.<ref name="D. Irani, Morris Silver 1995, p.87"/> A slave could also be freed if his/her master died.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=58-59}}

==Culture==

===Education===
There was a major school, called the Grand School, in the capital. In the beginning, only 50 students were allowed to study at the Grand School.  In less than 100 years, enrollment at the Grand School was over 30,000 students.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

===Society===

Membership in a class was based on birth, although it was possible for an exceptional individual to move to another class on the basis of merit. The function of the king was to ensure that each class remained within its proper boundaries, so that the strong did not oppress the weak, nor the weak the strong. To maintain this social equilibrium was the essence of royal justice, and its effective functioning depended on the glorification of the monarchy above all other classes.<ref name="Daniel, p. 57"/>

On a lower level, Sasanian society was divided into [[Sasanian Army#Azadan nobility|Azatan]] (freemen), who jealously guarded their status as descendants of ancient [[Aryan]] conquerors, and the mass of originally non-Aryan peasantry. The Azatan formed a large low-aristocracy of low-level administrators, mostly living on small estates. The Azatan provided the cavalry backbone of the [[Sasanian army]].<ref name="Nicolle, p. 11"/>

===Art, science and literature===
:''See also: [[Sasanian music]], [[Sasanian art]], [[Academy of Gundishapur|Science and medical academy of Gundishapur]], [[Pahlavi literature]], [[Sasanian architecture]]''
[[File:Coupe de Chosroès.JPG|thumb|A bowl with [[Khosrau I]]'s image at the center]]
[[File:Head horse Kerman Louvre MAO132.jpg|thumb|Horse head, gilded silver, 4th century, Sasanian art]]
[[File:Sassanid silver plate by Nickmard Khoey.jpg|thumb|A Sasanian silver plate featuring a simurgh]]
[[File:Sassanid silver plate depicting a lion hunt by Nickmard Khoey.jpg|thumb|A Sasanian silver plate depicting a royal lion hunt]]

The Sasanian kings were enlightened patrons of letters and philosophy. Khosrau I had the works of [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] translated into Pahlavi taught at Gundishapur, and even read them himself. During his reign, many historical annals were compiled, of which the sole survivor is the [[Karnamak-i Artaxshir-i Papakan]] (Deeds of Ardashir), a mixture of history and romance that served as the basis of the Iranian national epic, the [[Shahnameh]]. When Justinian I closed the schools of [[Athens]], seven of their professors fled to Persia and found refuge at Khosrau's court. In time they grew homesick, and in his treaty of 533 with Justinian, the Sasanian king stipulated that the Greek sages should be allowed to return and be free from persecution.<ref name="Durant">Durant.</ref>

Under Khosrau I, the [[Academy of Gundishapur]], which had been founded in the 5th century, became "the greatest intellectual center of the time", drawing students and teachers from every quarter of the known world. [[Nestorian Christian]]s were received there, and brought [[Syriac language|Syriac]] translations of Greek works in medicine and philosophy. Neoplatonists too, came to Gundishapur, where they planted the seeds of [[Sufi]] [[mysticism]]; the medical lore of India, Persia, Syria and Greece mingled there to produce a flourishing school of therapy.<ref name="Durant" />

Artistically, the Sasanian period witnessed some of the highest achievements of [[Culture of Iran|Iranian civilization]]. Much of what later became known as Muslim culture, including architecture and writing, was originally drawn from Persian culture. At its peak, the Sasanian Empire stretched from western Anatolia to northwest India (nowadays Afghanistan/Pakistan), but its influence was felt far beyond these political boundaries. Sasanian motifs found their way into the art of [[Central Asia]] and China, the [[Byzantine Empire]], and even [[Merovingian]] France. [[Islamic art]] however, was the true heir to Sasanian art, whose concepts it was to assimilate while, at the same time instilling fresh life and renewed vigor into it.<ref name="Iransaga: The art of Sassanians"/> According to [[Will Durant]]:

{{Cquote|''Sasanian art exported its forms and motifs eastward into India, Turkestan and China, westward into Syria, Asia Minor, Constantinople, the Balkans, Egypt and Spain. Probably its influence helped to change the emphasis in Greek art from classic representation to Byzantine ornament, and in Latin Christian art from wooden ceilings to brick or stone vaults and domes and buttressed walls.''<ref name="Durant" />}}
Sasanian carvings at [[Taq-e Bostan]] and [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] were colored; so were many features of the palaces; but only traces of such painting remain. The literature, however, makes it clear that the art of painting flourished in Sasanian times; the prophet [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] is reported to have founded a school of painting; [[Firdowsi]] speaks of Persian magnates adorning their mansions with pictures of Iranian heroes; and the poet al-Buhturi describes the murals in the palace at Ctesiphon. When a Sasanian king died, the best painter of the time was called upon to make a portrait of him for a collection kept in the royal treasury.

Painting, [[sculpture]], [[pottery]], and other forms of decoration shared their designs with Sasanian textile art. Silks, embroideries, [[brocade]]s, [[damask]]s, [[tapestries]], chair covers, canopies, tents and rugs were woven with patience and masterly skill, and were dyed in warm tints of yellow, blue and green. Every Persian but the peasant and the priest aspired to dress above his class; presents often took the form of sumptuous garments; and great colorful carpets had been an appendage of wealth in the East since [[Assyria]]n days. The two dozen Sasanian textiles that have survived are among the most highly valued fabrics in existence. Even in their own day, Sasanian textiles were admired and imitated from Egypt to the Far East; and during the [[Middle Ages]], they were favored for clothing the relics of Christian saints. When [[Heraclius]] captured the palace of [[Khosrau II|Khosrau II Parvez]] at [[Dastagird|Dastagerd]], delicate embroideries and an immense rug were among his most precious spoils. Famous was the "Winter Carpet", also known as "Khosrau's Spring" (Spring Season Carpet قالى بهارستان) of [[Khosrau I|Khosrau Anushirvan]], designed to make him forget winter in its spring and summer scenes: flowers and fruits made of inwoven rubies and diamonds grew, in this carpet, beside walks of silver and brooks of pearls traced on a ground of gold. [[Harun al-Rashid]] prided himself on a spacious Sasanian rug thickly studded with jewelry. Persians wrote love poems about their rugs.<ref name="Durant" />

Studies on Sasanian remains show over 100 types of crowns being worn by Sasanian kings. The various Sasanian crowns demonstrate the cultural, economic, social and historical situation in each period. The crowns also show the character traits of each king in this era. Different symbols and signs on the crowns–the moon, stars, eagle and palm, each illustrate the wearer's religious faith and beliefs.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jona Lendering |url=http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/sassanids/sassanid-crowns.html |title=Sasanian crowns |publisher=Livius.org |date=2006-03-31 |accessdate=2013-06-30}}</ref><ref>[http://www.chn.ir/en/news/?section=2&id=4471 Iranian cultural heritage news agency (CHN)] {{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

The Sasanians Dynasty, like the Achaemenid, originated in the province of [[Fars Province|Pars]]. The Sasanians saw themselves as successors of the Achaemenids, after the [[Hellenistic]] and Parthian interlude, and believed that it was their destiny to restore the greatness of Persia.

In reviving the glories of the [[Achaemenid Dynasty|Achaemenid]] past, the Sasanians were no mere imitators. The art of this period reveals an astonishing virility, in certain respects anticipating key features of Islamic art. Sasanian art combined elements of traditional Persian art with Hellenistic elements and influences. The conquest of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] by [[Alexander the Great]] had inaugurated the spread of [[Hellenistic art]] into Western Asia. Though the East accepted the outward form of this art, it never really assimilated its spirit. Already in the [[Parthia]]n period, Hellenistic art was being interpreted freely by the peoples of the Near East. Throughout the Sasanian period, there was reaction against it. Sasanian art revived forms and traditions native to Persia, and in the Islamic period, these reached the shores of the Mediterranean.<ref>Parviz Marzban, p.36</ref>  According to Fergusson:

{{Cquote|''With the accession of the [Sasanians], Persia regained much of that power and stability to which she had been so long a stranger&nbsp;... The improvement in the fine arts at home indicates returning prosperity, and a degree of security unknown since the fall of the Achaemenidae.''<ref>Fergusson, ''History of Architecture'', vol. i, 3rd edition, pp. 381−3.</ref></blockquote>}}

Surviving palaces illustrate the splendor in which the Sasanian monarchs lived. Examples include palaces at [[Firuzabad, Fars|Firuzabad]] and [[Bishapur]] in [[Fars Province|Fars]], and the capital city of [[Ctesiphon]] in the [[Asoristan]] province (present-day [[Iraq]]). In addition to local traditions, Parthian architecture influenced Sasanian architectural characteristics. All are characterized by the barrel-vaulted [[iwan]]s introduced in the Parthian period. During the Sasanian period, these reached massive proportions, particularly at Ctesiphon. There, the arch of the great vaulted hall, attributed to the reign of Shapur I (241–272), has a span of more than {{convert|80|ft|m}} and reaches a height of {{convert|118|ft|m}}. This magnificent structure fascinated architects in the centuries that followed and has been considered one of the most important examples of [[Persian architecture]]. Many of the palaces contain an inner audience hall consisting, as at Firuzabad, of a chamber surmounted by a dome. The Persians solved the problem of constructing a circular dome on a square building by employing [[squinch]]es, or arches built across each corner of the square, thereby converting it into an octagon on which it is simple to place the dome. The dome chamber in the palace of Firuzabad is the earliest surviving example of the use of the squinch, suggesting that this architectural technique was probably invented in Persia.

The unique characteristic of Sasanian architecture was its distinctive use of space. The Sasanian architect conceived his building in terms of masses and surfaces; hence the use of massive walls of brick decorated with molded or carved stucco. Stucco wall decorations appear at Bishapur, but better examples are preserved from [[Chal Tarkhan]] near [[Rey, Iran|Rey]] (late Sasanian or early Islamic in date), and from Ctesiphon and [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] in Mesopotamia. The panels show animal figures set in roundels, human busts, and geometric and floral motifs.

At Bishapur, some of the floors were decorated with [[mosaic]]s showing scenes of banqueting. The Roman influence here is clear, and the mosaics may have been laid by Roman prisoners. Buildings were decorated with wall paintings. Particularly fine examples have been found on [[Mount Khajeh]] in [[Sistan and Baluchistan|Sistan]].

==Economy==
[[File:Textile0001.jpg|thumb|Sasanian silk twill textile of a [[simurgh]] in a beaded surround, 6th–7th century. Used in the reliquary of [[Saint Len]], Paris]]
Due to the majority of the inhabitants being of peasantry stock, the Sasanian economy relied on farming and agriculture, Khuzestan and Iraq being the most important provinces for it. The [[Nahrawan Canal|Nahravan Canal]] is one of the greatest examples of Sasanian irrigation systems, and many of these things can still be found in Iran. The mountains of the Sasanian state was used on lumbering by the nomads of the region, and due to the great centralization of the Sasanians, they also managed to impose tax on the nomads and inhabitants of the mountains. During the reign of Khosrau I, further land was brought under centralization.<ref name="Tafazzoli & Khromov, p. 48">Tafazzoli & Khromov, p. 48</ref>

Two trade routes were used during the Sasanian period, one in the north, the famous [[Silk Route]], and one less prominent route in the southern Sasanian coast. The factories of [[Susa]], [[Gundeshapur]], and [[Shushtar]] were famously known for their production of silk, and rivaled the Chinese factories. The Sasanians showed great toleration to the inhabitants of the countryside, which was important to create a great deal of stuff in case of famine.<ref name="Tafazzoli & Khromov, p. 48"/>

===Industry and trade===
[[File:Indo-Sassanid.jpg|thumb|Sasanian sea [[trade route]]s]]
Persian industry under the Sasanians developed from domestic to urban forms. Guilds were numerous. Good roads and bridges, well patrolled, enabled state post and merchant caravans to link Ctesiphon with all provinces; and harbors were built in the Persian Gulf to quicken trade with India.<ref name=Durant /> Sasanian merchants ranged far and wide and gradually ousted Romans from the lucrative Indian Ocean trade routes.<ref name="Nicolle, p. 6">Nicolle, p. 6</ref> Recent archeological discovery has shown an interesting fact that Sasanians used special labels (commercial labels) on goods as a way of promoting their brands and distinguish between different qualities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/aug/1199.html |title=Sassanids Used Commercial Labels: Iranian Archeologists|date=21 August 2009|publisher=Payvand|accessdate=2009-09-25}}</ref>

Khosrau I further extended the already vast trade network. The Sasanian state now tended toward monopolistic control of trade, with luxury goods assuming a far greater role in the trade than heretofore, and the great activity in building of ports, caravanserais, bridges and the like, was linked to trade and urbanization. The Persians dominated international trade, both in the [[Indian Ocean]], Central Asia and South Russia, in the time of Khosrau, although competition with the Byzantines was at times intense. Sassanian settlements in [[Oman]] and [[Yemen]] testify to the importance of trade with India, but the silk trade with China was mainly in the hands of Sasanian vassals and the Iranian people, the [[Iranian peoples|Sogdians]].<ref>Frye, p. 325</ref>

The main exports of the Sasanians were silk; woolen and golden textiles; carpets and rugs; hides; and, leather and pearls from the [[Persian Gulf]]. There were also goods in transit from China (paper, silk) and India (spices), which Sasanian customs imposed taxes upon, and which were re-exported from the Empire to Europe.<ref>Sarfaraz, p. 353</ref>

It was also a time of increased metallurgical production, so Iran earned a reputation as the "armory of Asia". Most of the Sasanian mining centers were at the fringes of the Empire – in Armenia, the Caucasus and above all, [[Transoxania]]. The extraordinary mineral wealth of the [[Pamir Mountains]] on the eastern horizon of the Sasanian empire led to a legend among the [[Tājik people|Tajiks]], an Iranian people living there, which is still told today. It said that when God was creating the world, he tripped over Pamirs, dropping his jar of minerals, which spread across the region.<ref name="Nicolle, p. 6"/>

==Religion==
{{Main article|Zoroastrianism}}

===Zoroastrianism===

Under [[Arsacid Empire|Parthian rule]], Zoroastrianism had fragmented into regional variations which also saw the rise of local cult-deities, some from Iranian religious tradition but others drawn from [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] tradition too. Greek paganism and religious ideas had spread and mixed with Zoroastrianism when [[Alexander the Great]] had conquered the [[Persian Empire]] from [[Darius III]]; a process of Greco-Persian religious and cultural synthesisation which had continued into the Parthian era too. But under the Sassanids, an orthodox Zoroastrianism was revived and the religion would undergo numerous and important developments.

Sassanid Zoroastrianism would develop to have clear distinctions from the practices laid out in the [[Avesta]], the holy books of Zoroastrianism. It is often argued that the Sassanid Zoroastrian clergy later modified the religion in a way to serve themselves, causing substantial religious uneasiness.{{Specify|date=November 2007}} Sassanid religious policies contributed to the flourishing of numerous religious reform movements, most importantly the [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] and [[Mazdak]] religions.

The relationship between the Sassanid Kings and the religions practiced in their empire became complex and varied. For instance, while [[Shapur I]] tolerated and encouraged a variety of religions and seems to have been a [[Zurvanism|Zurvanite]] himself, religious minorities at times were suppressed under later Kings, such as [[Bahram II]]. Shapur II, on the other hand, tolerated religious groups except Christians, whom he only persecuted in the wake of Constantine's conversion.<ref name="Ehsan Yarshater 1983 pp. 879">Ehsan Yarshater. ''The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods'', (Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp.&nbsp;879–880.</ref><ref name="Ehsan Yarshater 1983 pp. 879"/><ref name="Manfred Hutter 1993 pp. 5">Manfred Hutter. ''Numen, Vol. 40, No. 1'', "Manichaeism in the Early Sasanian Empire", (BRILL, 1993), pp.&nbsp;5–9</ref><ref name="Manfred Hutter 1993 pp. 5"/>

====Tansar and his justification for Ardashir I's rebellion====
From the very beginning of Sassanid rule in 224 an orthodox [[Fars Province|Pars]]-oriented Zoroastrian tradition would play an important part in influencing and lending legitimization to the state until its collapse in the mid-7th century. After [[Ardashir I]] had deposed the last [[Arsacid Empire|Parthian]] King, [[Artabanus V (of Parthia)|Artabanus V]], he sought the aid of [[Tansar]], a ''[[herbad]]'' (high priest) of the Iranian Zoroastrians to aid him in acquiring legitimization for the new dynasty. This Tansar did by writing to the nominal and vassal kings in different regions of [[Iran]] to accept Ardashir I as their new King, most notably in the ''[[Letter of Tansar]]'', which was addressed to [[Gushnasp]], the vassal king of [[Tabarestan]]. Gushnasp had accused Ardashir I of having forsaken tradition by usurping the throne, and that while his actions 'may have been good for the World' they were 'bad for the faith'. Tansar refuted these charges in his letter to Gushnasp by proclaiming that not all of the old ways had been good, and that Ardashir was more virtuous than his predecessors. The ''Letter of Tansar'' included some attacks on the religious practices and orientation of the Parthians, who did not follow an orthodox Zoroastrian tradition but rather a heterodox one, and so attempted to justify Ardashir's rebellion against them by arguing that Zoroastrianism had 'decayed' after Alexander's invasion, a decay which had continued under the Parthians and so needed to be 'restored'.<ref name="Zoroastrians 2000">''Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', 2nd edition. Mary Boyce, (Routledge; Dec 2000).</ref>

[[Tansar]] would later help to oversee the formation of a single 'Zoroastrian church' under the control of the Persian [[magi]], alongside the establishment of a single set of [[Avesta]]n texts, which he himself approved and authorised.

====Influence of Kartir====
[[Kartir]], a very powerful and influential Persian cleric, served under several Sassanid Kings and actively campaigned for the establishment of a [[Fars province|Pars]]-centred Zoroastrian orthodoxy across the Sassanid Empire. His power and influence grew so much that he became the only 'commoner' to later be allowed to have his own rock inscriptions carved in the royal fashion (at [[Sar Mashhad]], [[Naqsh-e Rostam]], [[Ka'ba-ye Zartosht]] and [[Naqsh-e Rajab]]). Under [[Shapur I]], Kartir was made the 'absolute authority' over the 'order of priests' at the Sassanid court and throughout the empire's regions too, with the implication that all regional Zoroastrian clergies would now for the first time be subordinated the Persian Zoroastrian clerics of [[Fars province|Pars]]. To some extent Kartir was an [[iconoclasm|iconoclast]] and took it upon himself to help establish numerous Bahram fires throughout Iran in the place of the 'bagins / ayazans' (monuments and temples containing images and idols of cult-deities) that had proliferated during the Parthian era. In expressing his doctrinal orthodoxy, Kartir also encouraged an obscure Zoroastrian concept known as ''khvedodah'' among the common-folk (marriage within the family; between siblings, cousins). At various stages during his long career at court, Kartir also oversaw the periodic persecution of the non-Zoroastrians in Iran, and secured the execution of the prophet [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] during the reign of [[Bahram I]]. During the reign of [[Hormizd I]] (the predecessor and brother of Bahram I) Kartir was awarded the new Zoroastrian title of ''mobad'' – a clerical title that was to be considered higher than that of the eastern-Iranian (Parthian) title of ''herbad''.<ref name="Zoroastrians 2000"/>

====Zoroastrian calendar reforms under the Sasanians====
The Persians had long known of the Egyptian calendar, with its 365 days divided into 12 months. However, the traditional Zoroastrian calendar had 12 months of 30 days each. During the reign of [[Ardashir I]], an effort was made to introduce a more accurate Zoroastrian calendar for the year, so 5 extra days were added to it. These 5 extra days were named the [[Gatha days]] and had a practical as well as religious use. However, they were still kept apart from the 'religious year', so as not to disturb the long-held observances of the older Zoroastrian calendar.

Some difficulties arose with the introduction of the first calendar reform, particularly the pushing forward of important Zoroastrian festivals such as Hamaspat-maedaya and [[Nowruz]] on the calendar year by year. This confusion apparently caused much distress among ordinary people, and while the Sassanids tried to enforce the observance of these great celebrations on the new official dates, much of the populace continued to observe them on the older, traditional dates, and so parallel celebrations for Nowruz and other Zoroastrian celebrations would often occur within days of each other, in defiance of the new official calendar dates, causing much confusion and friction between the laity and the ruling class. A compromise on this by the Sassanids was later introduced, by linking the parallel celebrations as a 6-day celebration/feast. This was done for all except Nowruz.

A further problem occurred as Nowruz had shifted in position during this period from the [[spring equinox]] to [[autumn]], although this inconsistency with the original spring-equinox date for Nowruz had possibly occurred during the Parthian period too.

Further calendar reforms occurred during the later Sassanid era. Ever since the reforms under [[Ardashir I]] there had been no intercalation. Thus with a quarter day being lost each year, the Zoroastrian holy year had slowly slipped backwards, with Nowruz eventually ending up in July. A great council was therefore convened and it was decided that Nowruz be moved back to the original position it had during the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] period - back to [[spring (season)|spring]]. This change probably took place during the reign of [[Kavad I]] in the early 6th century. Much emphasis seems to have been placed during this period on the importance of spring and on its connection with the resurrection and ''[[Frashegerd]]''.<ref name="Zoroastrians 2000"/>

====Three Great Fires====
[[File:Takhte Soleyman.jpg|thumb|Ruins of [[Takht-e Soleymān|Adur Gushnasp]], one of three main Zoroastrian temples in the Sassanian Empire]]

Reflecting the regional rivalry and bias the Sassanids are believed to have held against their [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] predecessors, it was probably during the Sassanid era that the two great fires in [[Fars province|Pars]] and [[Media (region)|Media]] - the ''[[Adur Farnbag]]'' and ''[[Adur Gushnasp]]'' respectively - were promoted to rival, and even eclipse, the sacred fire in [[Parthia]], the ''[[Adur Burzen-Mehr]]''. The Adur Burzen-Mehr, linked (in legend) with [[Zoroaster]] and [[Vishtaspa]] (the first Zoroastrian King), was too holy for the Persian magi to put an end to veneration for it, however, it was demoted during the Sassanid era.

It was therefore during the Sassanid era that the three ''Great Fires'' of the Zoroastrian world were given specific associations. The ''Adur Farnbag'' in Pars became associated with the [[magi]], ''Adur Gushnasp'' in Media with warriors, and ''Adur Burzen-Mehr'' in Parthia with the lowest estate; farmers and herdsmen.

The ''Adur Gushnasp'' eventually became, by custom, a place of pilgrimage by foot for newly enthroned Kings after their coronation. It is likely that during the Sassanid era that these three ''Great Fires'' became central places for pilgrimage among Zoroastrians.<ref name="Zoroastrians 2000"/>

====Iconoclasm and the elevation of Persian over other Iranian languages====
The early Sassanids ruled against the use of cult images in worship, and so statues and idols were removed from many temples and where possible - sacred fires were installed instead. This policy extended even to the [[Aniran|'non-Iran']] regions of the empire during some periods. Hormizd I allegedly destroyed statues erected for the dead in [[Armenia]]. However, only cult-statues were removed. The Sassanids continued to use images to represent the deities of Zoroastrianism, including that of [[Ahura Mazda]], in the tradition that was established during the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] era.

In the early Sassanid period royal inscriptions often consisted of [[Parthian language|Parthian]], [[Middle Persian]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]. However, the last time Parthian was used for a royal inscription came during the reign of [[Narseh]], son of [[Shapur I]]. It is likely therefore that soon after this, the Sassanids made the decision to impose Persian as the sole official language within Iran, and forbade the use of written Parthian. This had important consequences for Zoroastrianism, given that all secondary literature, including the [[Zend|Zand]], were then recorded only in [[Middle Persian]], having a profound impact in orienting Zoroastrianism towards the influence of the [[Fars province|Pars]] region, the homeland of the Sassanids.<ref name="Zoroastrians 2000"/>

====Developments in Zoroastrian literature and liturgy by the Sasanians====
Some scholars of Zoroastrianism such as [[Mary Boyce]] have speculated that it is possible that the ''[[yasna]]'' service was lengthened during the Sassanid era 'to increase its impressiveness'.<ref>{{cite book|title=Their Religious Beliefs and Practices The Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices|author=Mark Boyce|pages=123–125}}</ref>  This appears to have been done by joining the [[Gathas|Gathic]] ''[[Staota Yesnya]]'' with the ''[[haoma]]'' ceremony. Furthermore, it is believed that another longer service developed, known as the ''[[Visperad]]'', which derived from the extended yasna. This was developed for the celebration of the seven holy days of obligation (the ''[[Gahambars]]'' plus ''[[Nowruz]]'') and was dedicated to ''[[Ahura Mazda]]''.

While the very earliest Zoroastrians eschewed writing as a form of demonic practice, the [[Middle Persian]] [[Avesta#The Zend|Zand]], along with much secondary Zoroastrian literature, was recorded in writing during the Sassanid era for the first time. Many of these Zoroastrian texts were original works from the Sassanid period. Perhaps the most important of these works was the ''[[Bundahishn]]'' – the mythical Zoroastrian story of 'Creation'. Other older works, some from remote antiquity, were possibly translated from different Iranian languages into Middle Persian during this period. For example, two works, the ''[[Drakht-i Asurig]]'' (Assyrian Tree) and ''[[Yadegar-e Zariran|Ayadgar-i Zareran]]'' (Exploits of Zarter) were probably translated from [[Parthian language|Parthian]] originals.

Of great importance for Zoroastrianism was the creation of the [[Avestan alphabet]] by the Sassanids, which enabled the accurate rendering of the [[Avesta]] in written form (including in its original language/phonology) for the first time. The alphabet was based on the [[Pahlavi alphabet|Pahlavi]] one, but rather than the inadequacy of that script for recording spoken Middle Persian, the Avestan alphabet had 46 letters, and was well suited to recording [[Avestan language|Avestan]] in written form in the way the language actually sounded and was uttered. The Persian [[magi]] where therefore finally able to record all surviving ancient Avestan texts in written form.

As a result of this development, the Sasanian Avesta was then compiled into 21 nasks (divisions) to correspond with the 21 words of the ''[[Ahuna Vairya|Ahunavar]]'' invocation. The nasks were further divided into 3 groups of 7. The first group contained the ''[[Gathas]]'' and all texts associated with them, while the second group contained works of scholastic learning. The final section contained treatises of instruction for the magi, such as the ''[[Vendidad]]'', law-texts and other works, such as ''[[yashts]]''.

An important literary text, the ''[[Khwaday-Namag]]'' (Book of Kings) was composed during the Sasanian era. This text is the basis of which the later ''[[Shahnameh]]'' of [[Ferdowsi]] drew from. Another important Zoroastrian text from the Sasanian period includes the ''[[Menog-i Khrad|Dadestan-e Menog-e Khrad]]'' (Judgements of the Spirit of Wisdom).<ref name="Zoroastrians 2000"/>

===Christianity===
{{Main article|Church of the East}}
{{See also|Christianisation of Armenia|Church of Caucasian Albania}}
Christians in the Sasanian Empire belonged mainly to the [[Nestorian Church]] (Church of the East) and the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Jacobite Church]] (Syriac Orthodox Church) branches of Christianity. Although these churches originally maintained ties with Christian churches in the Roman Empire, they were indeed quite different from them. One reason for this was that the [[liturgical language]] of the Nestorian and Jacobite Churches was [[Syriac language|Syriac]] rather than Greek, the language of Roman Christianity during the early centuries (and the language of Eastern Roman Christianity in later centuries). Another reason for a separation between Eastern and Western Christianity was strong pressure from the Sasanian authorities to sever connections with Rome, since the Sasanian Empire was often at war with the Roman Empire.

Christianity was recognized by king Yazdegerd I in 409 as an allowable faith within the Sasanian Empire.<ref>Alexander A. Vasiliev, ''History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453'', Vol. I,  (University of Wisconsin Press, 1980), 96-97.</ref>

The major break with mainstream Christianity came in 431, due to the pronouncements of the [[First Council of Ephesus]]. The Council condemned [[Nestorius]], a theologian of Cilician/Kilikian origin and the [[patriarch of Constantinople]], for teaching a view of [[Christology]] in accordance with which he refused to call Mary, the mother of [[Jesus Christ]], "[[Theotokos]]" or Mother of God. While the teaching of the Council of Ephesus was accepted within the Roman Empire, the Sasanian church disagreed with the condemnation of Nestorius' teachings. When Nestorius was deposed as patriarch, a number of his followers fled to the Sasanian Empire. Persian emperors used this opportunity to strengthen Nestorius' position within the Sasanian church (which made up the vast majority of the Christians in the predominantly Zoroastrian Persian Empire) by eliminating the most important pro-Roman clergymen in Persia and making sure that their places were taken by Nestorians. This was to assure that these Christians would be loyal to the Persian Empire, and not to the Roman.{{Citation needed|date=December 2014}}

Most of the Christians in the Sasanian empire lived on the western edge of the empire, predominantly in Mesopotamia, but there were also important extant communities in the more northern territories, namely [[Caucasian Albania]], Lazica, [[Kingdom of Iberia|Iberia]], and the Persian part of Armenia. Other important communities were to be found on the island of [[Tylos]] (present day [[Bahrain]]), the southern coast of the Persian Gulf, and the area of the [[Arabian]] kingdom of [[Lakhmids|Lakhm]]. Some of these areas were the earliest to be Christianized; the kingdom of [[Armenia]] became the first independent Christian state in the world in 301. While a number of Assyrian territories had almost become fully Christianized even earlier during the 3rd century, they never became independent nations.<ref name="iranologie" />

===Other religions===
Some of the recent excavations have discovered the [[Buddhist]], [[Hindu]] and Jewish religious sites in the empire.<ref>{{cite book|title=Conflict and Cooperation: Zoroastrian Subalterns and Muslim Elites in Medieval Iranian Society|page=5|publisher=Columbia University Press|author=Front Cover Jamsheed Kairshasp Choksy|year=1997}}</ref> [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]] were competitors of Zoroastrianism in [[Bactria]] and [[Margiana]],<ref>{{cite book|title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750|publisher=UNESCO|author1=Ahmad Hasan Dani |author2=B. A. Litvinsky |page=410}}</ref> in the far easternmost territories. A very large Jewish community flourished under Sasanian rule, with thriving centers at [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], [[Babylon]] and [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]], and with its own semiautonomous ''Exilarchate'' leadership based in Mesopotamia. Jewish communities suffered only occasional persecution. They enjoyed a relative freedom of religion, and were granted privileges denied to other religious minorities.<ref>Zarinkoob, p. 272</ref> Shapur I (Shabur Malka in Aramaic) was a particular friend to the Jews. His friendship with [[Samuel of Nehardea|Shmuel]] produced many advantages for the Jewish community.<ref>Zarinkoob, p. 207</ref> He even offered the Jews in the Sasanian empire a fine white Nisaean horse, just in case the Messiah, who was thought to ride a donkey or a mule, would come.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jona Lendering |url=http://www.livius.org/ne-nn/nisaia/nisaia.html |title=Livius article on Sassanid Empire |publisher=Livius.org |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref> Shapur II, whose mother was Jewish, had a similar friendship with a Babylonian rabbi named [[Rabbah bar Nahmani|Rabbah]]. Raba's friendship with Shapur II enabled him to secure a relaxation of the oppressive laws enacted against the Jews in the Persian Empire. Moreover, in the eastern portion of the empire, various Buddhist places of worship, notably in [[Bamyan City|Bamiyan]] were active as Buddhism gradually became more popular in that region.

==Language==

===Official languages===
During the early Sasanian period, [[Middle Persian]] along with [[Koine Greek|Greek]] and [[Parthian language|Parthian]] appeared in the inscriptions of the early Sasanian kings. However, by the time Narseh (r. 293–302) was ruling, Greek was no longer in use, perhaps due to the disappearance of Greek or the anti-Hellenic Zoroastrian clergy had finally managed to remove it once and for all. This was probably also because Greek was a commonplace among the Romans/Byzantines, the rival of the Sasanians.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=99-100}} Parthian soon disappeared as an administrate language too, but was continued to be spoken and written in the eastern part of the Sasanian Empire, the homeland of the Parthians.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|pp=116-117}} Furthermore, many of the Parthian aristocrats who had entered into Sasanian service after the fall of the [[Parthian Empire]], still spoke Parthian, such as the seven Parthian clans, who possessed much power within the empire. Sometimes one of the members of the clans would even protest against Sasanian rule.

[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], like in the [[Achaemenid Empire]], was widely used in the Sasanian Empire, and provided [[Aramaic alphabet|scripts]] for Middle Persian and other languages.<ref name="Chyet 1997 284"/>

===Regional languages===
Although Middle Persian was the native language of the Sasanians (who, however, were not originally from [[Fars Province|Pars]]), it was only a minority spoken-language in the vast Sasanian Empire; it only formed the majority of Pars, while it was widespread around [[Media (region)|Media]] and its surrounding regions. However, there were several different Persian dialects during that time. Besides Persian, [[Old Azeri language|Adhari]] along with one of its dialects, [[Tati language (Iran)|Tati]], was spoken in [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Adurbadagan]] (Azerbaijan). [[Daylamite language|Daylamite]] and [[Gilaki language|Gilaki]] was spoken in [[Gilan]], while [[Mazanderani language|Mazandarani]] (also known as Tabari) was spoken in [[Tabaristan]] ([[Mazandaran]]). Furthermore, many other languages and dialects were spoken in the two regions.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|p=101}}

In the Sasanian territories in the Caucasus, numerous languages were sproken including [[Georgian language|Georgian]], various [[Kartvelian languages]] (notably in Lazica), Middle Persian,<ref name="VAS">Shnirelman, V.A.(2001), 'The value of the Past: Myths, Identity and Politics in Transcaucasia', Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.  pp 79:
"Yet, even at the time of Caucasian Albania and later on, as well, the region was greatly affected by Iran
and Persian enjoyed even more success than the Albanian language".</ref> [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Caucasian Albanian language|Caucasian Albanian]], [[Scythian languages|Scythian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and others.

In Khuzestan, several languages were spoken; Persian in the north and east, while [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] was spoken in the rest of the place.{{sfn|Christopher Brunner|1975|p=754}} Furthermore, [[Elamite language|Neo-Elamite]] was also spoken in the province.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|p=101}} In [[Meshan]], the [[Arameans]], along with settled [[Arabs]] (known as Mesenian Arabs), and the nomadic Arabs, formed the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] population of the province along with [[Nabataeans|Nabataean]] and [[Palmyrene dialect|Palmyrene]] merchants. Iranians had also begun to settle in the province, along with the [[Jat people|Zutt]], who had been deported from [[India]]. Other Indian groups such as the [[Ethnic Malays|Malays]] may also have been deported to Meshan, either as captives or recruited sailors.{{sfn|Christopher Brunner|1975|p=755}} In Asoristan the majority of the people were Aramaic-speaking Nestorian Christians while the Persians, Jews and Arabs formed a minority in the province.

Due to invasions from the [[Scythians]] and their sub-group, the [[Alans]] into Azerbaijan, Armenia, and other places in Caucasus, the places gained a larger, although small, Iranian population.{{sfn|Christopher Brunner|1975|p=763}} Parthian, along with other Iranian dialects and languages was spoken in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], while to the further east in places which were not always controlled by the Sasanians, [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]], [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]] and [[Khwarezmian language|Khwarazmian]] was spoken. To the further south in [[Sistan]], a place which during the Parthian period saw an influx of [[Scythians]] to the place, [[Sistani dialect|Sistani]] was spoken.{{sfn|Christopher Brunner|1975|pp=772-773}}{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|p=101}} [[Kerman Province|Kirman]] was populated by an Iranian group which closely resembled the Persians, while to the further east in [[Paratan (satrapy)|Paratan]], [[Turan (satrapy)|Turan]] and [[Makran]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]] and non-Iranian languages were spoken.{{sfn|Christopher Brunner|1975|pp=772-773}} In major cities such as [[Gundeshapur]] and Ctesiphon, [[Latin]], Greek and [[Syriac language|Syriac]] was spoken by Roman/Byzantine prisoners of war. Furthermore, [[Slavic language|Slavic]] and [[Germanic language|Germanic]] was also spoken in the Sasanian Empire, once again due to the capture of Roman soldiers.{{sfn|Daryaee|2008|p=102}}

==Legacy and importance==
The influence of the Sasanian Empire continued long after it fell. The empire, through the guidance of several able emperors prior to its fall, had achieved a [[Persian Culture|Persian renaissance]] that would become a driving force behind the [[Islamic world|civilization]] of the newly established religion of [[Islam]].<ref>Sasanian Iran, 224- 651 AD: portrait of a late antique empire - Page 20</ref> In modern [[Iran]] and the regions of the [[Greater Iran|Iranosphere]], the Sasanian period is regarded as one of the high points of [[History of Iran|Iranian civilization]].<ref>The Iranians: Persia, Islam and the soul of a nation - Page 33</ref>

===In Europe===
[[File:Derbent summer.jpg|thumb|A Sasanian fortress in [[Derbent]], Russia (the [[Gates of Alexander|Caspian Gates]])]]

Sasanian culture and military structure had a significant influence on Roman civilization. The structure and character of the [[Roman army]] was affected by the methods of Persian warfare. In a modified form, the Roman Imperial autocracy imitated the royal ceremonies of the Sasanian court at Ctesiphon, and those in turn had an influence on the ceremonial traditions of the courts of medieval and modern Europe. The origin of the formalities of European diplomacy is attributed to the diplomatic relations between the Persian governments and the Roman Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Bury|p=109}}</ref>

===In Jewish history===
[[File:Parsis3.jpg|thumb|"Parsees of [[Bombay]]" a wood engraving, c. 1878]]

Important developments in [[Jewish history]] are associated with the Sassanian Empire. The Babylonian [[Talmud]] was composed between the third and sixth centuries in Sasanian Persia <ref>[https://books.google.co.il/books?id=G-OYdFG8wswC&pg=PA299&lpg=PA299&dq=babylonian+talmud+composed+sassanid&source=bl&ots=-F1-R3APUA&sig=K2uhbuornm_8EHObzPqiK1DjHG4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CFQQ6AEwCWoVChMIluHenY7yxgIVxxseCh1MXgos#v=onepage&q=babylonian%20talmud%20composed%20sassanid&f=false]</ref> and major Jewish academies of learning were established in [[Sura (city)|Sura]] and [[Pumbedita]] that became cornerstones of [[Talmudic Academies in Babylonia|Jewish scholarship]].<ref>The fire, the star and the cross by Aptin Khanbaghi(2006) pg 6</ref> Several individuals of the Imperial family such as Ifra Hormizd the Queen mother of Shapur II and Queen [[Shushandukht]], the Jewish wife of Yazdegerd I, significantly contributed to the close relations between the Jews of the empire and the government in Ctesiphon.<ref>A. Khanbaghi(2006) pg 9</ref>

===In India===
{{See also|Zoroastrianism in India}}
The collapse of the Sasanian Empire led to Islam slowly replacing Zoroastrianism as the primary religion of Iran. A large number of Zoroastrians chose to emigrate to escape Islamic persecution. According to the ''[[Qissa-i Sanjan]]'', one group of those refugees landed in what is now [[Gujarat]], India, where they were allowed greater freedom to observe their old customs and to preserve their faith. The descendants of those Zoroastrians would play a small but significant role in the development of India. Today there are over 70,000 Zoroastrians in India.<ref>{{cite web|title=Parsi population in India declines  |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/sep/1055.html |date=September 7, 2004  |work=Payvand's Iran News&nbsp;... |publisher=Payvand|accessdate=3 September 2009}}</ref>

The Zoroastrians still use a variant of the religious calendar instituted under the Sasanians. That calendar still marks the number of years since the accession of Yazdegerd III, just as it did in 632. (''See also: [[Zoroastrian calendar]]'')

==Sasanian Empire chronology==
{{Main article|List of shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire|Timeline of the Sasanian Empire}}
[[File:Sasanian Empire.gif|thumb|500px|Sasanian Empire timeline including important events and territorial evolution.]]
224–241: Reign of [[Ardashir I]]:
*224: Overthrow of the [[Parthian Empire]]
*229–232: War with Rome
*[[Zoroastrianism]] is revived as official religion
*The collection of texts known as the Zend [[Avesta]] is assembled

241–271: Reign of [[Shapur I]] "the Great":
*241–244: War with Rome
*252–261: War with Rome. Decisive victory of Persian at [[Battle of Edessa|Edessa]] and Capture of Roman emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]]
*215–271: [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]], founder of [[Manicheanism]]

271–301: A period of dynastic struggles.

283: War with Rome.

293: Revolt of [[Narseh]].

296-8: War with Rome – Persia cedes five provinces east of the Tigris to Rome.

309–379: Reign of [[Shapur II]] "the Great":
*325: Shapur II defeats many Arab tribes and makes the [[Lakhmids|Lakhmid kingdom]] his [[Vassal state|vassal]].
*337–350: First war with Rome with relatively little success
*359–363: Second war with Rome. Rome cedes Northern and Eastern Mesopotamia, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]] including fifteen fortresses as well as Nisibis to Persia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/shapur-ii |title=SHAPUR II – Encyclopaedia Iranica |publisher=Iranicaonline.org |date=2009-07-20 |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/byzantine-iranian-relations |title=BYZANTINE-IRANIAN RELATIONS – Encyclopaedia Iranica |publisher=Iranicaonline.org |date=1990-12-15 |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref>

387: Armenia partitioned into Roman and Persian zones

399–420: Reign of [[Yazdegerd I]] "the Sinner":
*410: [[Church of the East]] formalised at the [[synod of Isaac]] under the patronage of Yazdegerd. Christians are permitted to publicly worship and to build churches
*416–420: Persecution of Christians as Yazdegerd revokes his earlier order

420–438: Reign of [[Bahram V]]:
*421–422: War with Rome
*424: Council of Dad-Ishu declares the Eastern Church independent of Constantinople
*428: Persian zone of Armenia annexed to Sasanian Empire

438–457: Reign of [[Yazdegerd II]]:
*440: War with the Byzantine Empire, the Romans gives some payments to the Sasanians<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/yazdgerd-ii |title=YAZDEGERD II – Encyclopaedia Iranica |publisher=Iranicaonline.org |date=2012-10-19 |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref>
*449–451: Armenian revolt. [[Battle of Avarayr]] fought in 451 against the Christian [[Armenians|Armenian]] rebels led by [[Vardan Mamikonian]].

482–3: Armenian and Iberian revolt

483: Edict of Toleration granted to Christians

484: [[Peroz I]] defeated and killed by Hephthalites. The [[Nvarsak Treaty]] grants the [[Armenians]] the right to profess Christianity freely.

491: Armenian revolt. Armenian Church repudiates the [[Council of Chalcedon]]:
*[[Nestorian Christianity]] becomes dominant Christian sect in Sasanian Empire

502–506: War with the [[Byzantine Empire]]. In the end the [[Byzantine Empire]] pays 1,000 pounds of gold to the Sasanian Empire<ref name="iranicaonline.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty |title=SASANIAN DYNASTY – Encyclopaedia Iranica |publisher=Iranicaonline.org |date=2005-07-20 |accessdate=2013-12-16}}</ref> The Sasanians captures [[Erzurum|Theodosiopolis]] and [[Silvan, Diyarbakır|Martyropolis]].<br>[[Byzantine Empire]] received [[Amida (Mesopotamia)|Amida]] for 1,000 pounds of gold.<ref name="iranicaonline.org"/>

526–532: War with the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Treaty of [[Eternal Peace (532)|Eternal Peace]]: The Sasanian Empire keeps [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]] and the [[Byzantine Empire]] receives Lazica & Persarmenia<ref>John W Barker, ''Justinian and the later Roman Empire'', 118.</ref>
<br>[[Byzantine Empire]] paid tribute 11,000&nbsp;lbs gold/year<ref>John W Barker, ''Justinian and the later Roman Empire'', (University of Wisconsin Press, 1966), 118.</ref>

531–579: Reign of [[Khosrau I]], "with the immortal soul" (Anushirvan).

541–562: War with the [[Byzantine Empire]].

572–591: War with the [[Byzantine Empire]].

580: The Sasanians under [[Hormizd IV]] abolish the monarchy of the [[Kingdom of Iberia]]. Direct control through [[Sasanian Iberia|Sasanian-appointed governors]] starts.

590: [[Rebellion of Bahram Chobin]] and other [[Sasanian]] nobles, [[Khosrau II]] overthrows [[Hormizd IV]] but loses the throne to [[Bahram Chobin]].
591: [[Khosrau II]] regains the throne with help from the [[Byzantine Empire]] and cedes Persian Armenia and western half of Iberia to the [[Byzantine Empire]].
593: Attempted usurpation of [[Hormizd V]]
595-602: Rebellion of [[Vistahm]]

603–628: War with the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Persia occupies Byzantine Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and the Transcaucasus, before being driven to withdraw to pre-war frontiers by Byzantine counter-offensive

610: Arabs defeat a Sasanian army at [[Battle of Thi Qar|Dhu-Qar]]

626: Unsuccessful siege of [[Constantinople]] by Avars, Persians, and Slavs.

627: Byzantine Emperor [[Heraclius]] invades Sasanian Mesopotamia. Decisive defeat of Persian forces at the [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|battle of Nineveh]]

628: [[Kavadh II]] overthrows [[Khosrau II]] and becomes [[Shah]]anshah.

628: A devastating plague kills half of the population in Western Persia, including [[Kavadh II]].<ref name="iranicaonline.org"/>

628–632: Civil war

632–644: Reign of [[Yazdegerd III]]

636: Decisive Sasanian defeat at the [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] during the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]]

641: The [[Rashidun Caliphate|Muslims]] defeats a massive [[Sasanian army]] with heavy casualties during the [[Battle of Nihawānd]]

644: The [[Rashidun Caliphate|Muslims]] conquers [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], Yazdegerd III becomes a hunted fugitive

651: [[Yazdegerd III]] fled eastward from one district to another, until at last he was killed by a local miller for his purse at [[Merv]] (present-day [[Turkmenistan]]), ending the dynasty. Yazdegerd is given a burial by the Assyrian bishop Mar Gregory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=106324&fullArticle=true&tocId=9106324 |title=All about Oscar |publisher=P2.britannica.com |date=2001-09-11 |accessdate=2013-06-30}}</ref> His son, [[Peroz III]], and many others went into exile in China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinapage.com/minority/iran.html |title=Pirooz in China |publisher=Chinapage.com |date=2000-08-11 |accessdate=2013-06-30}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Sasanian art]]
*[[Sasanian family tree]]
*[[Sasanian music]]
*[[Military of the Sasanian Empire]]
*[[List of Sasanian revolts and civil wars]]
*[[Romans in Persia]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}

* G. Reza Garosi (2012): ''The Colossal Statue of Shapur I in the Context of Sasanian Sculptures''. Publisher: Persian Heritage Foundation, New York.
*G. Reza Garosi (2009), ''Die Kolossal-Statue Šāpūrs I. im Kontext der sasanidischen Plastik''. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, Germany.
*{{Citation|last=Baynes|first=Norman H.|year=1912|title=The restoration of the Cross at Jerusalem | doi = 10.1093/ehr/XXVII.CVI.287|journal=The English Historical Review|volume=27|issue=106|issn=0013-8266|pages=287–299}}
*{{Citation|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337-425|last=Blockley|first=R.C.|editor=Averil Cameron |editor2=Peter Garnsey|year=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-30200-5|url=https://books.google.com/?id=zdoUNivK_hsC&dq=Shapur,+Constantius|chapter=Warfare and Diplomacy}}
*{{Citation |url=http://www.academia.edu/1012245/Prokop_und_die_Perser_Untersuchungen_zu_den_romisch-sasanidischen_Kontakten_in_der_ausgehenden_Spatantike_OrOcc_16_._Stuttgart_Franz_Steiner_Verlag_2007 |title=Prokop und die Perser. Untersuchungen zu den Römisch-Sasanidischen Kontakten in der ausgehenden Spätantike|last=Börm|first=Henning|year=2007|publisher=Franz Steiner |location=Stuttgart|isbn=978-3-515-09052-0}}
* Börm, Henning (2008). [http://www.academia.edu/1012249/Das_Konigtum_der_Sasaniden_-_Strukturen_und_Probleme._Bemerkungen_aus_althistorischer_Sicht_in_Klio_90_2008_pp._423ff "Das Königtum der Sasaniden - Strukturen und Probleme. Bemerkungen aus althistorischer Sicht."] ''Klio'' 90, pp.&nbsp;423ff.
* Börm, Henning (2010). [http://www.academia.edu/1012248/Herrscher_und_Eliten_in_der_Spatantike_in_H._Borm_-_J._Wiesehofer_eds._Commutatio_et_contentio._Studies_in_the_Late_Roman_Sasanian_and_Early_Islamic_Near_East_Dusseldorf_Wellem_2010_pp._159ff "Herrscher und Eliten in der Spätantike."] In: Henning Börm, [[Josef Wiesehöfer]] (eds.): ''Commutatio et contentio. Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East''. Düsseldorf: Wellem, pp.&nbsp;159ff.
* Börm, Henning (2016). "[https://www.academia.edu/23977858/A_Threat_or_a_Blessing_The_Sasanians_and_the_Roman_Empire_in_C._Binder_-_H._B%C3%B6rm_-_A._Luther_eds._Diwan._Studies_in_the_History_and_Culture_of_the_Ancient_Near_East_and_the_Eastern_Mediterranean_Duisburg_Wellem_2016_pp._615ff A Threat or a Blessing? The Sasanians and the Roman Empire]". In: Carsten Binder, Henning Börm, Andreas Luther (eds.): ''Diwan. Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean''. Duisburg: Wellem, pp.&nbsp;615ff. 
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* Howard-Johnston, James: "The Sasanian's Strategic Dilemma". In: Henning Börm - [[Josef Wiesehöfer]] (eds.), ''Commutatio et contentio. Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East'', Wellem Verlag, Düsseldorf 2010, pp.&nbsp;37–70.
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*Rawlinson, George, ''The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World: The Seventh Monarchy: History of the Sassanian or New Persian Empire'', IndyPublish.com, 2005 [1884].
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*Parviz Marzban, ''Kholaseh Tarikhe Honar'', Elmiv Farhangi, 2001. ISBN 964-445-177-5
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*{{EB1911}}

{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{Citation|last =Christensen |first=A |chapter=Sassanid Persia |volume=XII: The Imperial Crisis and Recovery (A.D. 193–324)|editor-last=Cook|editor-first= S. A. |place= Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=January 2, 1939| isbn= 0-521-04494-4 |title=The Cambridge Ancient History}}
* Michael H. Dodgeon, Samuel N. C. Lieu. ''The Roman Eastern frontier and the Persian Wars (AD 226-363). Part 1''. Routledge. London, 1994 ISBN 0-415-10317-7
*{{Citation|last =Howard-Johnston |first=J.D. |title = East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity: Historiographical and Historical Studies |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |date=2006| isbn= 0-860-78992-6 }}
* Labourt, J. ''Le Christianisme dans l'empire Perse, sous la Dynastie Sassanide (224-632).'' Paris: Librairie Victor Lecoffre, 1904.
*{{Citation| last=Oranskij |first= I. M. |title=Les langues Iraniennes (translated by Joyce Blau) |place=Paris| language=French| publisher= Klincksieck |year= 1977 |isbn= 978-2-252-01991-7}}
* {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/?id=RV8-AAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Early Sassanian inscriptions, seals and coins|author=[[Edward Thomas (antiquarian)|Edward Thomas]]|editor=|year=1868|publisher=Trübner|edition=|location=London|isbn=|page=137|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-05}} (Original from the Bavarian State Library)
* {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/?id=iQ0YAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Early Sassanian inscriptions, seals and coins|author=Edward Thomas|year=1868|publisher=Trübner|edition=|location=London|isbn=|page=137|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-05}} (Original from the New York Public Library)

{{commons category|Sassanid Empire|Sasanian Empire}}

==External links==
*[http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/ Sasanika: the History and Culture of Sasanians]
*''Sasanian rock reliefs'', Photos from Iran, [http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/sassanids/sassanid-reliefs.html ''Livius''].
*[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/ot_grp7/ot_sasanian_dyn_20050301.html Sasanian Dynasty] entry in the [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Sassanian/Sassan.html The Sassanians] The Sassanians by Iraj Bashiri, University of Minnesota.
*[http://www.iranchamber.com/art/articles/art_of_sassanians.php The Art of Sassanians, on Iran Chamber Society]
*[http://ecai.org/sasanianweb/ ECAI.org ''The Near East in Late Antiquity: The Sasanian Empire'']
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=njwgd7YZHi8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=roman+empire+in+persia&hl=en&ei=CaAhTNrBOoKKlwfRx4E2&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=roman%20empire%20in%20persia&f=false Google Book on Roman Eastern Frontier (part 1)]
*[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/sassanids/sassanid_images_inscriptions1.php A Review of Sassanid Images and Inscriptions, on Iran Chamber Society]
*[http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/sassanids/sassanid-crowns.html Sassanid crowns]
*[http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/sassanids/sassanid_kings.html Sassanid coins]
*[http://www.hp.uab.edu/image_archive/ugp/ Sassanid textile]
*[http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/art/islamic-metalwork.html Islamic Metalwork] ''The continuation of Sassanid Art''
*[http://www.transoxiana.com.ar/0104/sasanians.html Sasanians in Africa in Transoxiana 4].
*[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/ctesiphon/ctesiphon.php Ctesiphon; The capital of the Parthian and the Sassanid empires, on Iran Chamber Society]
*[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_conquest/islamic_conquest.php Islamic Conquest of Persia]
*[http://www.iranian.com/History/2000/August/China/ Pirooz in China, By Frank Wong]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20071213.shtml The Sassanian Empire] BBC – [[BBC Radio 4|Radio 4]] ''[[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]]'' programme (available as .ram file)
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/research_20071213.shtml The Sassanian Empire: Further Reading]
*[http://www.iranologie.com/history/history5.html Iranologie History of Iran Chapter V: Sasanians]
*[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/historic_periods.php History of Iran on Iran Chamber Society]
*[http://www.livius.org/persia.html Livius articles on ancient Persia]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/fryehst.html Richard Frye "The History of Ancient Iran"]
*[http://www.artarena.force9.co.uk/hpart.html Iransaga: Persian arts through the centuries]
*[http://www.iranchamber.com/religions/articles/aba_church_persia.php Christianity in Ancient Iran: Aba & The Church in Persia, on Iran Chamber Society]
*[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/sassanids/sassanian_army.php iranchamber.com]

{{Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia}}
{{Ancient Mesopotamia}}
{{Sasanian Provinces}}
{{Iran topics}}
{{Empires}}

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