View source for Dungan people

{{about|descendants of Chinese Muslims that left China in the 1800s|Muslims in China that are sometimes still referred to by this name in Central Asian languages|Hui people}}
{{Inadequate lead|date=March 2014}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group     = Dungan people 東干族
|image     = [[File:Dungan-Girls.JPG|250px]]<br/>Dungan girls in [[Shor-Tyube]], Kazakhstan
|population= 110,024

|region1   = {{flag|Kyrgyzstan}} <small>(2013 Demographic review)</small>
|pop1      = 64,565
|ref1      = <ref name="KGCensus">{{Cite journal | title = Демографический ежегодник Кыргызской Республики: 2009-2013.-Б: Нацстатком Кырг. Респ., 2014:-320с. ISBN 978-9967-26-837-1 | place = Bishkek| publisher = National Committee on Statistics | year =2014 | url = http://stat.kg/images/stories/docs/tematika/demo/Gotov.sbornik%202009-2013.pdf | ref = harv | postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref>
<!--
|region2={{flagcountry|Kazakhstan}}
|pop2=105,000
|ref2=<ref name="KSKi"/>
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|region2   = {{flag|Kazakhstan}} <small>(1999 census)</small>
|pop2      = 36,900
|ref2      = <ref name="KZCensus">[http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/images/pubs/2005/06/13/0000213102/010Alekseenko.pdf Aleksandr Nikolaevich Alekseenko (Александр Николаевич Алексеенко), "Republic in the Mirror of the Population Census" («Республика в зеркале переписей населения»)] ''Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniia''. 2001, No. 12. pp. 58-62.</ref>
<!--
|region3={{flagcountry|Russia}}
|pop3=125,000
|ref3=<ref name="KSKi"/>
-->
|region3   = {{flag|Russia}} <small>(2002 census)</small>
|pop3      = 801
|ref3      = <ref name="RUCensus">[http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=17 Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006000000/http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=17 |date=October 6, 2014 }}</ref>

|region4={{flagcountry|Tajikistan}}
|pop4=6,000
|ref4=<ref name="KSKi">{{harvnb|Ki|2002}}</ref>

|region5   = {{flagcountry|Mongolia}}
|pop5      = 5,300
|ref5      =
<!--
|region6={{flagcountry|Uzbekistan}}
|pop6=198,000
|ref6=<ref name="KSKi"/>
-->
|region6={{flagcountry|Uzbekistan}}
|pop6= 1,900
|ref6=

|region7={{flagcountry|Ukraine}}
|pop7= 133
|ref7= <ref>{{cite web|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/nationality/ |title=About number and composition population of Ukraine by data All-Ukrainian census of the population 2001 |work=Ukraine Census 2001 |publisher=State Statistics Committee of Ukraine |accessdate=17 January 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111217151026/http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/nationality/ |archivedate=17 December 2011 |df= }}</ref>

|languages = [[Dungan language|Dungan]]
|religions = [[Islam]]
|related-c = [[Hui people|Hui]], [[Chinese people]]
}}

'''Dungan''' ([[Dungan language|Dungan]]: Хуэйзў, ''Xuejzw/Huizu'', [[Xiao'erjing]]: {{lang|zh-Arab|حُوِ ظُ}}; {{zh|t=東干族|s=东干族|p=Dōnggān zú|w=Tung<sup>1</sup>kan<sup>1</sup>-tsu<sup>2</sup>}}; [[Xiao'erjing]]: {{lang|zh-Arab|دْوقًا ظُ}}; {{lang-ru|Дунгане}}, ''Dunganě''; {{lang-ky|Дунгандар}}, ''Dunğandar'', دۇنغاندار) is a term used in territories of the former [[Soviet Union]] to refer to a [[Muslim]] people of [[Chinese people|Chinese]] origin.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kyrgyzstan Eats: A Dungan Feast in Naryn|author=David Trilling|newspaper=EURASIANET.org|date=April 20, 2010<!-- - 1:18pm-->|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/node/60892}}</ref> Turkic-speaking peoples in [[Xinjiang]] Province in China also refer to members of this ethnic group as Dungans. In both China and the former Soviet republics where they reside, however, members of this ethnic group call themselves [[Hui people|Hui]].

In the censuses of the now independent states of the former Soviet Union, the Dungans, who are enumerated separately from Chinese, can be found in [[Kazakhstan]] (36,900 according to the 1999 census), [[Kyrgyzstan]] (58,409 according to the 2009 census), and [[Russia]] (801 according to the [[Russian Census (2002)|2002 census]]).<ref name="KGCensus"/><ref name="KZCensus"/><ref name="RUCensus"/>

==History==

=== Migration from China ===
[[File:Karakol-Dungan-Mosque-Gate-4.jpg|thumb|The gate of the Dungan Mosque in [[Karakol]], Kyrgyzstan. The upper text on the sign is a partially Uyghurized rendering of the mosque's Kyrgyz name into the [[Uyghur Arabic alphabet]]: ''Isiq-köl oblasttiq Qaraqol sharindaghi Ibrahim Haji atindaghi borborduq mäsjid.'' The lower text is [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]] in the Cyrillic script: ''Ysyk-Köl oblasttyk Karakol shaaryndagy Ibrakhim Ajy atyndagy borborduk mechit''—Central Mosque in the name of Ibrahim Hajji in the city of Karakol, [[oblast]] of [[Ysyk-Köl Province|Ysyk-Köl]].]]
In the [[Ferghana Valley]], the first Dungans to appear in [[Central Asia]] originated from [[Yining City|Kuldja]] and [[Kashgar]], as slaves captured by raiders; they mostly served in private wealthy households. After the Russians conquered Central Asia in the late 19th century and abolished slavery, most female Dungan slaves remained where they had originally been held captive, Russian ethnographer Validimir Petrovich Nalivkin and his wife said that "women slaves almost all remained in place, because they either were married to workers and servants of their former owners, or they were too young to begin an independent life".<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/?id=XYZVvJSdLBkC&pg=PA25&dq=The+Nalivkins+observed+that+Dungan+women+slaves+in+the+Fargana+Valley,+especially+those+taken+as+children,+had+few+choices:+%22women+slaves+almost+all+remained+in+place,+because+they+either+were+married+to+workers+and+servants+of+their#v=onepage&q=The%20Nalivkins%20observed%20that%20Dungan%20women%20slaves%20in%20the%20Fargana%20Valley%2C%20especially%20those%20taken%20as%20children%2C%20had%20few%20choices%3A%20%22women%20slaves%20almost%20all%20remained%20in%20place%2C%20because%20they%20either%20were%20married%20to%20workers%20and%20servants%20of%20their&f=false|title= The New Woman in Uzbekistan: Islam, Modernity, and Unveiling Under Communism|author=Marianne Kamp|year= 2008|publisher= University of Washington Press|edition= reprint, illustrated|location= |page= 25|isbn= 0-295-98819-3|pages= |accessdate= 2010-07-30}}</ref> Dungan women slaves were of mean status, and not regarded highly in [[Bukhara]].<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/?id=QVSVux0wIW0C&pg=PA209&dq=yelia's+mother-in-law+had+married+a+Chechen.+But+such+is+the+stigma+of+the+Chala+identity+that+it+overrode+both+the+low+status+of+the+Dungan+grandmother,+who+arrived+in+Bukhara+as+a+slave,+and+current+political+anxieties+about+Chechens#v=onepage&q=yelia's%20mother-in-law%20had%20married%20a%20Chechen.%20But%20such%20is%20the%20stigma%20of%20the%20Chala%20identity%20that%20it%20overrode%20both%20the%20low%20status%20of%20the%20Dungan%20grandmother%2C%20who%20arrived%20in%20Bukhara%20as%20a%20slave%2C%20and%20current%20political%20anxieties%20about%20Chechens&f=false|title=The other global city|author=Shail Mayaram|editor= Shail Mayaram|year=2009|publisher=Taylor & Francis US|edition= illustrated|location= |page= 209|isbn= 0-415-99194-3|pages= |accessdate=2010-07-30}}</ref>

Turkic Muslim slave-raiders from [[Kokand|Khoqand]] did not distinguish between Hui Muslim and Han Chinese, enslaving Hui Muslims in violation of Islam.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=nQbylEdqJKkC&pg=PA45&dq=khoqand+raiders+seizing+chinese+slaves+in+east+turkistan+failed+to+between+hui+muslims+and+han#v=onepage&q=khoqand%20raiders%20seizing%20chinese%20slaves%20in%20east%20turkistan%20failed%20to%20between%20hui%20muslims%20and%20han&f=false|title=Islam and the abolition of slavery|author=W. G. Clarence-Smith|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press US| location=|isbn= 0-19-522151-6|page=45|pages=|accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=nQbylEdqJKkC&pg=PA15&dq=a+trickle+of+chinese+also+reached+turkistan+well+into+the+nineteenth+century#v=onepage&q=a%20trickle%20of%20chinese%20also%20reached%20turkistan%20well%20into%20the%20nineteenth%20century&f=false|title=Islam and the abolition of slavery|author=W. G. Clarence-Smith|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press US|location= |isbn= 0-19-522151-6|page= 15|pages=|accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref> During the [[Afaqi Khoja revolts]] Turkic Muslim [[Khoja (Turkestan)|Khoja]] [[Jahangir Khoja]] led an invasion of [[Kashgar]] from the [[Kokand Khanate]], and Jahangir's forces captured several hundred [[Hui people|Dungan Chinese Muslims]] (tungan or hui) who were taken to [[Kokand]]. [[Tajiks of Xinjiang|Tajiks]] bought two Chinese slaves from [[Shaanxi]], they enslaved for a year before being returned by the Tajik Beg Ku-bu-te to China.{{sfn|Millward|1998|p=298}} All Dungans captured, both merchants and the 300 soldiers Janhangir captured in Kashgar had their [[Queue (hairstyle)|queues]] cut off when brought to Kokand and Central Asia as prisoners.{{sfn|Millward|1998|p=205}}{{sfn|Millward|1998|p=305}} It was reported that many of the captives became slaves, accounts of these slaves in Central Asia increased.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTmO416hNQ8C&pg=PA97&dq=khoqand+chinese+slaves&hl=en&ei=6ZUbTdzrKcH-8Aabz7HFDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The Empire and the Khanate: a political history of Qing relations with Khoqand c. 1760-1860|author=Laura Newby|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|location=|page=97|isbn=90-04-14550-8|pages=|accessdate=2010-11-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=3KMbTf7fMIL48AbjqcTVCw&ct=result&id=4eBtAAAAIAAJ&dq=kokand+slaves+chinese&q=kokandis+made+slaves+of+all+the+%27Chinese%27+whom+they+took+prisoner%2C+and+the+khan+|title=The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800-1911, pt. 1|author=John King Fairbank|year=1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=|page=371|isbn=|pages=|accessdate=2010-11-28}}</ref> The [[Queue (hairstyle)|queues]] were removed from Dungan Chinese Muslim prisoners and then sold or given to various owners, some of them escaped to Russian territory where they were repatriated back to China and the accounts of their captures were recorded in Chinese records.{{sfn|Millward|1998|p=168}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bk7jQaCu1EsC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The Missionary's Curse and Other Tales from a Chinese Catholic Village|volume=Volume 26 of Asia: Local Studies / Global Themes|first=Henrietta|last=Harrison|year=2013|publisher=University of California Press|location=|page=59|isbn=0520954726|pages=|accessdate=2010-11-28}}</ref> The Russians record an incident where they rescued these Chinese Muslim merchants who escaped, after they were sold by Jahangir's Army in Central Asia, and sent them back to China.{{sfn|Millward|1998|p=285}}

The Dungan in the former Soviet republics are [[Hui people|Hui]] who fled China in the aftermath of the [[Hui Minorities' War]] in the 19th century.  According to Rimsky-Korsakoff (1992), three separate groups of the Hui people fled to the Russian Empire across the [[Tian Shan]] Mountains during the exceptionally severe winter of 1877/78:
# The first group, of some 1000 people, originally from [[Turpan]] in [[Xinjiang]], led by Ma Daren (马大人, 'the Great Man Ma'), also known as Ma Da-lao-ye (马大老爷, 'The Great Master Ma'), reached [[Osh]] in southern [[Kyrgyzstan]].
# The second group, originally from Didaozhou (狄道州) in Gansu, led by ''[[ahong]]'' Ma Yusuf (马郁素夫),<ref>As per Ma Tong (2003)</ref> also known as Ah Ye Laoren (阿爷老人, 'the Old Man O'Granpa'), were settled in the spring of 1878 in the village of Yrdyk ({{lang-ru|Ирдык}} or Ырдык) some 15&nbsp;km from [[Karakol]] in Eastern Kyrgyzstan. They numbered 1130 on arrival.
# The third group, originally from [[Shaanxi]], led by Bai Yanhu (白彦虎; also spelt Bo Yanhu; often called by his followers "虎大人", 'The Great Man Hu (Tiger)', 1829(?)-1882), one of the leaders of the rebellion, were settled in the village of Karakunuz (now Masanchi), in modern [[Zhambyl Province]] of Kazakhstan. It is located 8&nbsp;km north from the city [[Tokmok|Tokmak]] in north-western Kyrgyzstan. This group numbered 3314 on arrival. Bai Yanhu's name in other romanizations was Bo-yan-hu or Pai Yen-hu, other names included Boyan-akhun ([[Akhund]] or [[Imam]] Boyan) and Muhammad Ayyub.<ref>
{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=7CP7fYghBFQC&pg=PA720&lpg=PA720&dq=Dungan+revolt+(1895%E2%80%931896)#v=onepage&q&f=false
|title= E.J. Brill's first encyclopedia of Islam, 1913-1936
|author=M. Th. Houtsma
|year= 1993|publisher= BRILL
|location= 
|isbn= 90-04-09790-2
|page= 720
|pages= 
|accessdate= 2010-10-28
}}
</ref>

The next wave of immigration followed in the early 1880s. In accordance with the terms of the [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)]], which required the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the Upper [[Ili River|Ili]] Basin (the [[Ghulja, China|Kulja]] area), the Dungan (Hui) and [[Taranchi]] ([[Uyghur people|Uyghur]]) people of the region were allowed to opt for moving to the Russian side of the border. Many chose that option; according to Russian statistics, 4,682 Hui moved to the Russian Empire under the treaty. They migrated in many small groups between 1881 and 1883, settling in the village of [[Sokuluk]] some 30&nbsp;km west of [[Bishkek]], as well as in a number of locations between the Chinese border and Sokuluk, in south-eastern [[Kazakhstan]] and in northern [[Kyrgyzstan]].

===Name===
{{infobox Chinese
|s=东干族
|t=東干族
|p=Dōnggānzú
|East Turkic= Tungan
|rus=Дунгане
|dungan-xej=حُوِ ذَو
|dungan=Хуэйзў<br>Доңганзў
|dungan-latin=Huejzw
|dungan-han=回族}}
In the Russian Empire, Soviet Union, and the post-Soviet states, the Dungans continue to refer to themselves as the ''Hui people'' ({{zh|c=[[:zh:回族|回族]]}}, Huízú; in Cyrillic Soviet Dungan spelling, xуэйзў).

The name ''Dungan'' is of obscure origin. One popular theory derives this word from Turkic ''döñän'' ("one who turns"), which can be compared to Chinese [[wiktionary:回|回]] (huí), which has a similar meaning. Another theory derives it from the Chinese 东甘 (Dong Gan),  'Eastern [[Gansu]]', the region to which many of the Dungan can trace their ancestry; however the character ''gan'' (干) used in the name of the ethnic group is different from that used in the name of the province (甘).

The term "Dungan" ("Tonggan", "Donggan") has been used by Central Asian [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-and Tajik-speaking people to refer to Chinese-speaking Muslims for several centuries. [[Joseph Fletcher (historian)|Joseph Fletcher]] cites Turkic and Persian manuscripts related to the preaching of the 17th century [[Kashgar]]ian [[Sufi]] master Muhammad Yūsuf (or, possibly, his son [[Afaq Khoja]]) inside the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming Empire]] (in today's [[Gansu]] and/or [[Qinghai]]), where the Kashgarian preacher is told to have converted '''ulamā-yi Tunganiyyān'' (i.e., "Dungan [[ulema]]") into [[Sufism]].<ref name=lipman>{{cite book
|first=Jonathan Neaman |last=Lipman
|publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=1998
|isbn=962-209-468-6
|title=Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4_FGPtLEoYQC
|page=59
}}. Lipman's source is: [[Joseph Fletcher (historian)|Joseph Fletcher]], "The Naqshbandiya in Northwest China", in {{cite book|title=''Studies on Chinese and Islamic Inner Asia|editor=Beatrcie Manz| place=London|publisher=Variorum|year=1995}}</ref>

Presumably, it was from the Turkic languages that the term was borrowed into Russian (дунгане, ''dungane'' (pl.); дунганин, ''dunganin'' (sing.)) and Chinese ({{zh|s=东干族|t=東干族|p=Dōnggānzú}}), as well as to Western European languages.

[[File:Zerrspiegel-Taifurchi-shooting-exercises-i125.jpg|thumb|left|Caption: "Shooting exercises of ''taifurchi'' [gunners]. Dungans and Kashgar Chinese". A French engraving from the [[Yaqub Beg]]'s state period]]
In English and German, the [[ethnonym]] "Dungan", in various spelling forms, was attested as early as the 1830s, sometimes typically referring to the Hui people of Xinjiang. For example, James Prinsep in 1835 mentions Muslim "Túngánis" in "Chinese Tartary".<ref>James Prinsep, "Memoir on Chinese Tartary and Khoten". The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 48, December 1835. P. 655.[https://books.google.com/books?id=nK4IAAAAQAAJ On Google Books]</ref><ref>Prinsep's article is also available in "The Chinese Repository", 1843, p. 234 [https://books.google.com/books?id=bXMbAAAAIAAJ On Google Books].  A modern (2003) reprint is available, ISBN 1-4021-5631-6.</ref> In 1839, [[Karl Ernst von Baer]] in his German-language account of Russian Empire and adjacent Asian lands has a one-page account of Chinese-speaking Muslim "Dungani" or "Tungani", who had visited [[Orenburg]] in 1827 with a caravan from China; he also mentions "Tugean" as a spelling variant used by other authors.<ref>[[Karl Ernst von Baer]], Grigoriĭ Petrovich Gelʹmersen. "Beiträge zur Kenntniss des russischen Reiches und der angränzenden Länder Asiens". Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1839. p. 91. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uN0GAAAAYAAJ On Google Books] {{de icon}}</ref>  R.M. Martin in 1847 mentions "Tungani" merchants in [[Yarkent County|Yarkand]].<ref>Robert Montgomery Martin, "China; political, commercial, and social; an official report". 1847. p.19. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ReEDAAAAQAAJ On Google Books]</ref>

The word (mostly in the form "Dungani" or "Tungani", sometimes "Dungens" or "Dungans") acquired some currency in English and other western languages when a number of books in the 1860-1870s discussed the [[Dungan revolt (1862–1877)|Dungan Rebellion]] in [[Northwestern China]]. At the time, one could see European and American authors apply the term ''Tungani'' to the Hui people both in Xinjiang,<ref>
For example, [[Thomas Edward Gordon]] writes about the "Tunganis" with ''taifu'' wall pieces (small cannons) guarding the walls of [[Yaqub Beg]]'s capital [[Kashgar]] (in today's Western Xinjiang) in his book  [https://archive.org/stream/roworldanarrati00gordgoog/roworldanarrati00gordgoog_djvu.txt ''The roof of the world: being a narrative of a journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian frontier and the Oxus sources on Pamir'']. A ''[[The Times|Times]]'' journalist in  "[http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/883063 Russia and China in Central Asia]" (reprinted by ''The [[Brisbane Courier]]'', Wednesday 8 January 1879) distinguishes "the Tungan Country" (today, eastern Xinjiang) and "Eastern Turkestan" (corresponding to [[Yaqub Beg]]'s state in today's western Xinjiang). He talks about "the Tungani who had erected in the various cities of [[Hami City|Hami]]l, [[Barkol County|Barkul]], [[Qitai County|Guchen]], [[Urumqi|Urumtsi]], and [[Manas County|Manas]] a confederacy of no mean power".</ref>
and in [[Shaanxi]] and [[Gansu]] (which at the time included today's [[Ningxia]] and [[Qinghai]] as well). Authors aware of the general picture of the spread of [[Islam]] in China, viewed these "Tungani" as just one of the groups of China's Muslims.<ref>See e.g. an anonymous article, "[http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=livn;idno=livn0145-9 Mohammedanism in China]", in ''The Living age'',  Volume 145, Issue 1876. May 29, 1880. Pp. 515-525. Reprinted from the [[Edinburgh Review]]. While using "Mohammedans" as the generic description of Chinese Muslim's throughout the article (including e.g., the [[Panthays]] then recently [[Panthay rebellion|rebelling]] in [[Yunnan]]), the author describes "[a]n [[Dungan revolt (1862–1877)|insurrection]], beginning in [[Xi'an|Singan-fu]], and spreading to [[Gansu|Kan-suh]] in 1862, in which the Tungani (a mysterious race of Muslims dwelling in that region, supposed to be the remnant of the armies of [[Kublai Khan]]) were the chief actors" (p. 524).</ref>

[[Marshall Broomhall]], who has a chapter on  "the Tungan Rebellion" in his 1910 book, introduces "the name Tungan or Dungan, by which the Muslims of these parts [i.e., NE China] are designated, in contradistinction as the Chinese Buddhists who are spoken of as Kithay";
the reference to "[[Names of China|Khitay]]" shows that he was viewing the two terms as used by Turkic speakers.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Islam in China: a neglected problem|first=Marshall|last=Broomhall|year=1910|publisher=China Inland Mission
|oclc=347514|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObcNAAAAIAAJ|page=147|ref=harv|postscript=.}}. A 1966 reprint by Paragon Book Reprint is available.  Relatedly, the Russian word for China is also Kitai (Китай), and for Chinese is kitaitsy (китайцы), a label that is not applied to the Dungans (дунгане) in an ethnic sense; that is, Dungans and kitaitsi (Chinese) were regarded as different ethnic groups or nationalities.</ref>
Broomhall's book also contains a translation of the report on Chinese Muslims by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] writer named Abd-ul-Aziz. Abd-ul-Aziz divides the "Tungan people" into two branches: "the Tunagans of China proper" (including, apparently all [[Hui people]] in "[[China proper]]", as he also talks e.g. about the Tungans having 17 mosques in Beijing), and "The Tungans of Chinese and Russian Turkestan", who still look and speak Chinese, but have often also learned the [[Uyghur language|"Turkish" language]].<ref>{{harvnb|Broomhall|1910|p=260}}</ref>

Later authors continued to use the term Dungan (in various transcriptions) for, specifically, the Hui people of Xinjiang.
For example, [[Owen Lattimore]], writing c. 1940, maintains the terminological distinction between these two related groups: "T'ungkan" (i.e. [[Wade-Giles]] for "Dungan"), described by him as the descendants of the Gansu Hui people resettled in Xinjiang in 17-18th centuries, vs. e.g. "Gansu Moslems" or generic "Chinese Moslems".<ref>[[Owen Lattimore]]. ''Inner Asian Frontiers of China''. Page 183 in the 1951 edition.</ref> The term (usually as "Tungans") continues to be used by many modern historians writing about the 19th century [[Dungan revolt (1862–1877)|Dungan Rebellion]] (e.g. by [[Denis C. Twitchett]] in the [[Cambridge History of China]],<ref>{{Cite book|first=Denis Crispin |last=Twitchett|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1978
|isbn=0-521-22029-7|title=The Cambridge history of China, Volume 11 <!-- |Editors Denis Crispin Twitchett, John King Fairbank -->
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC |pages=215–242|ref=harv|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}. Twitchett's definition (p. 215) is in line with the authors of 1870s-1880s, rather than with that of more recent Lattimore: for Twitchett, "Tungans" include the Huis of [[Shaanxi]] and [[Gansu]] as well, not just of Xinjiang</ref>  by James A. Millward in his economic history of the region,<ref>{{Cite book
|first=James A. |last=Millward
|publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1998|isbn=0-8047-2933-6
|title=Beyond the pass: economy, ethnicity, and empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ|pages=35 etc.
|ref=harv
|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref>
or by [[Kim Ho-dong]] in his monograph<ref>{{Cite book|authorlink=Kim Hodong|first=Ho-dong |last=Kim|publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-8047-4884-5|title=Holy war in China: the Muslim rebellion and state in Chinese Central Asia, 1864-1877 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AtduqAtBzegC|ref=harv|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref>).

===Dungan villages in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan===
The Dungans themselves referred to Karakunuz ({{lang-ru|Каракунуз}}, sometimes Караконыз or Караконуз) as Ingpan ({{zh|c=营盘}}, Yingpan<!--; Dungan: Инпан-->; {{lang-ru|Иньпан}}), which means 'a camp, an encampment'. In 1965, Karakunuz was renamed Masanchi (sometimes spelt as "Masanchin"), after [[Magaza Masanchi]] or Masanchin (Dungan: Магәзы Масанчын; {{zh|c=马三奇}}), a Dungan participant in the [[Communist Revolution]] and a Soviet Kazakhstan statesman.

The following table summarizes location of Dungan villages in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, alternative names used for them, and their Dungan population as reported by Ma Tong (2003). The Cyrillic Dungan spelling of place names is as in the textbook by Sushanlo, Imazov (1988); the spelling of the name in Chinese character is as in Ma Tong (2003).
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dungan villages in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan
! Village name (and alternatives) !! Location (in present-day terms) !! Foundation !! Current Dungan population (from Ma Tang (2003))
|-
! colspan="4"| [[Kazakhstan]] - total 48,000 (Ma Tang (2003)) or 36,900 (Kazakhstan Census of 1999)
|-
| '''Masanchi''' ({{lang-ru|Масанчи}}; {{lang-kz|Масаншы}}) or Masanchin (Russian: Масанчин; [[Dungan language|Cyrillic Dungan]]: Масанчын; 马三成), prior to 1965 Karakunuz (Каракунуз, Караконыз). Traditional Dungan name is Ingpan (Cyrillic Dungan: Йинпан; Russian: Иньпан; {{zh|c=营盘}}, Yingpan)
| ({{coord|42|55|40|N|75|18|00|E|type:city|name=Masanchi}}) [[Korday District]], [[Jambyl Region]] of [[Kazakhstan]] (8&nbsp;km north of [[Tokmok]], [[Kyrgyzstan]])
| Spring 1878. 3314 people from [[Shaanxi]], led by Bai Yanhu (白彦虎).
| 7,000, current mayor: Ishar Ussupovich Lou

</blockquote>
|-
| '''[[Sortobe]]''' ({{lang-kz|Sortobe}}; {{lang-ru|Шортюбе}}, Shortyube; {{lang-dng|Щёртюбе}}; {{zh|c=新渠}}, Xinqu)
| ({{coord|42|52|00|N|75|15|15|E|type:city|name=Sortobe}}) [[Korday District]], [[Jambyl Region]]. On the northern bank of the Chui River opposite and a few km downstream from Tokmok; south of Masanchi (Karakunuz)
| (Karakunuz group)
| 9,000
|-
| '''Zhalpak-tobe''', ({{lang-kz|Жалпак-тобе}}; {{zh|c=加尔帕克秋白}}, Jiarpakeqiubai)
|  [[Jambyl District, Jambyl|Jambyl District]], [[Jambyl Region]]; near Grodekovo, south of [[Taraz]]
|
| 3,000
|-
!  colspan="4"|[[Kyrgyzstan]] - total 50,000 (Ma Tang (2003)
|-
| '''[[Pristan'-Przheval'sk|Yrdyk]]''' {{lang-ru|Ырдык or Ирдык}}; {{lang-dng|Эрдэх}}; {{zh|c=二道沟}}, Erdaogou)
| ({{coord|42|27|30|N|78|18|0|E|type:city|name=Yrdyk}}) [[Jeti-Ögüz District]] of [[Issyk-Kul Region]]; 15&nbsp;km south-west from [[Karakol]]. <!-- Russian description: село Ырдык Кызыл-Дыйканской сельской управы Джети-Огузского района -->
| Spring 1878. 1130 people, originally from Didaozhou (狄道州) in Gansu, led by Ma Yusu (马郁素), a.k.a. Ah Yelaoren (阿爷老人).
| 2,800
|-
| '''[[Sokuluk]]''' ({{lang-ru|Сокулук}}; Dungan: Сохўлў; {{zh|c=梢葫芦}}, Saohulu); may also include adjacent Aleksandrovka (Александровка)
| [[Sokuluk District]] of [[Chuy Region]]; 30&nbsp;km west of [[Bishkek]]
| Some of those 4,628 Hui people who arrived in 1881-1883 from the [[Ili River|Ili]] Basin ([[Xinjiang]]) .
| 12,000
|-
| '''[[Milyanfan]]''' ({{lang-ru|Милянфан}}; {{lang-dng|Милёнчуан}}; {{zh|c=米粮川}}, Miliangchuan)
| [[Ysyk-Ata District]] of [[Chuy Region]]. Southern bank of the [[Chu River]], some 60&nbsp;km west of Tokmok and about as much north-east of Bishkek.
| (Karakunuz group (?))
| 10,000
|-
| '''[[Ivanovka, Kyrgyzstan|Ivanovka village]]''' ({{lang-ru|Ивановка}}; {{zh|c=伊万诺夫卡}})
| [[Ysyk-Ata District]]  of [[Chuy Region]]. Southern bank of the [[Chu River]], some 30&nbsp;km west of Tokmok.
| (Karakunuz group (?))
|1,500
|--
| Dungan community of '''[[Osh]]''' ({{lang-ru|Ош}}, {{zh|c=奥什}} or 敖什, Aoshe)
| [[Osh Region]]
| Spring 1878, 1000 people, originally from [[Turpan]] in [[Xinjiang]], led by Ma Daren, also known as Ma Da-lao-ye (马大老爷)
| 800
|-
|}

The position of the Kazakhstan villages within the administrative division of [[Jambyl Region]], and the total population of each village can be found at the provincial statistics office web site.<ref>[http://www.zhambyl.stat.kz/main.php?action=perepis&article=4&lang=rus Population data for Zhambyl Province towns and villages] (1999-2002)</ref>

Besides the traditionally Dungan villages, many Dungan people live in the nearby cities, such as [[Bishkek]], [[Tokmok]], [[Karakol]].

===Soviet rule===
[[File:E8016-Milyanfan-museum.jpg|thumb|Vanakhun's museum]]
During [[World War II]], some Dungans served in the [[Red Army]], one of them who was Vanakhun Mansuza ([[Dungan language|Cyrillic Dungan]] : мансуза ванахун; {{zh|t=曼苏茲({{lang|en|or}}子)·王阿洪|s=曼蘇茲·王阿洪|p=Mànsūzī·Wángāhóng|first=t}}) a Dungan war "hero" who led a "mortar battery".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ywAaAQAAIAAJ&q=Makeeva+writes+that+one+of+the+heroes,+who+perished+while+defending+Moscow+in+1941,+is+Dulshenkul+Shopokov;+another+hero+is+the+courageous+commander+of+the+mortar+battery,+Vanakhun+Mansuza,+a+third+hero+is+the+private+Tashmamat&dq=Makeeva+writes+that+one+of+the+heroes,+who+perished+while+defending+Moscow+in+1941,+is+Dulshenkul+Shopokov;+another+hero+is+the+courageous+commander+of+the+mortar+battery,+Vanakhun+Mansuza,+a+third+hero+is+the+private+Tashmamat|title=I︠A︡syr Shivaza: the life and works of a Soviet Dungan poet|author=Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer|year=1991|publisher=P. Lang|edition=illustrated|location=|page=205|isbn=3-631-43963-6|pages=|accessdate=2011-06-11}}</ref>

===Present day===
[[File:E8042-Milyanfan-house.jpg|thumb|In Milyanfan village, [[Chuy Province]] of Kyrgyzstan]]
As Ding (2005) notes, "[t]he Dungan people derive from China's Hui people, and now live mainly in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Their population is about 110,000. This people have now developed a separate ethnicity outside China, yet they have close relations with the Hui people in culture, ethnic characteristics and ethnic identity."

==Language==
{{main|Dungan language}}
{{see also|Xiao'erjing|Sini (script)}}
The Dungan language, which the Dungan people call the "[[Hui people|Hui]] language" (Хуэйзў йүян or ''Huejzw jyian''), is similar to the [[Zhongyuan Mandarin|Zhongyuan dialect of Mandarin Chinese]], which is widely spoken in the south of [[Gansu]] and the west of [[Guanzhong]] in [[Shaanxi]] in China.

Like other [[varieties of Chinese]], Dungan is tonal. There are two main dialects, one with four tones, and the other, considered standard, with three tones in the final position in words and four tones in the non-final position.

Some Dungan vocabulary may sound old-fashioned to Chinese people. For example, they refer to a President as an "[[Emperor of China|Emperor]]" (Хуаңды，''huan'g-di'') and call government offices ''[[yamen]]'' (ямын，''ya-min''), a term for mandarins' offices in ancient China. Their language also contains many loanwords from [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Persian language|Persian]], and [[Turkic language|Turkic]]. Since the 1940s, the language has been written in [[Cyrillic script]], demonstrating that Chinese can be written with an alphabet (compare the [[pinyin]] system).

Unlike other minority nationalities in Central Asia, such as the [[Koryo-saram|local Koreans]], most Dungan people are [[trilingual]]. More than two-thirds of the Dungan also speak [[Russian language|Russian]], and a small proportion can speak [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]] or other languages belonging to the [[titular nationality|titular nationalities]] of the countries where they live.<ref>http://www.hum.uit.no/a/trond/sintr.html.</ref>

==Culture==
{{see also|Chinese Islamic cuisine}}
[[File:E7869-Dordoy-Bazaar.jpg|thumb|right|Many restaurants in Bishkek advertise "Dungan cuisine" (Дунганская кухня)]]
[[File:Dungan mosque in Karakol.jpg|thumb|Dungan mosque in [[Karakol]], Kyrgyzstan]]
Nineteenth century explorer [[Henry Lansdell]] noted that the Dungan people abstained from spirits and [[opium]], neither smoked nor took [[snuff (tobacco)|snuff]] and
<Blockquote>"are of middle height, and inclined to be stout. They have high and prominent foreheads, thick and arched eyebrows, eyes rather sunken, fairly prominent cheek-bones, face oval, mouth of average size, lips thick, teeth normal, chin round, ears small and compressed, hair black and smooth, beard scanty and rough, skin smooth, neck strong, and extremities of average proportions. The characteristics of the Dungans are kindness, industry, and hospitality.
They engage in husbandry, horticulture, and trade. In domestic life parental authority is very strong. After the birth of a child the mother does not get up for fifteen days, and, without any particular feast, the child receives its name in the presence of a [[mullah]] the day succeeding
that of its birth. Circumcision takes place on the eighth, ninth, or tenth day. When a girl is married she receives a [[dowry|dower]]. In sickness they have recourse to medicine and doctors, but never to [[exorcism]]s. 
After a death the mullah and the aged assemble to recite prayers ; the corpse is wrapped in white linen and then buried, but never burned. On returning from the interment the mullah and the elders partake of bread and meat. To saints they erect monuments like little mosques, for others simple hillocks. The widow may re-marry after 90 days, and on the third anniversary of the death a feast takes place."<ref name="Lansdell1885">{{cite book|author=Henry Lansdell|title=Russian Central Asia: Including Kuldja, Bokhara, Khiva and Merv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oIVlRw3fSOAC|year=1885|publisher=Sampson Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington|pages=209–10}}</ref></Blockquote>

The Dungan are primarily farmers, growing rice and vegetables such as sugar beets. Many also raise dairy cattle. In addition, some are involved in [[opium]] production. The Dungan tend to be [[endogamous]].

The Dungan are well known for their hospitality and hold many ceremonies and banquets to preserve their culture. They have elaborate and colorful observances of birthdays, weddings, and funerals. In addition, schools have museums to preserve other parts of their culture, such as embroidery, traditional clothing, silver jewelry, paper cuts of animals and flowers and tools.

The Dungan still practice elements of Chinese culture, in cuisine and attire, up to 1948 they also practiced [[foot binding]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=OWMyFWAZLCwC&pg=PA31&dq=dungan+foot+binding#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Central Asia and the Caucasus: transnationalism and diaspora|author1=Touraj Atabaki |author2=Sanjyot Mehendale |year=2005|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=0-415-33260-5|page=31|pages=|accessdate=2011-01-01}}</ref> The conservative Shaanxi Dungan cling more tightly to Chinese customs than the Gansu Dungan.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=bVZwAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Dungans+who+originate+in+Shaanxi+are+often+considered+to+be+the+most+faithful+to+%22tradition&dq=The+Dungans+who+originate+in+Shaanxi+are+often+considered+to+be+the+most+faithful+to+%22tradition|title=China perspectives, Issues 27-32|author=French Centre for Research on Contemporary China|year=2000|publisher=C.E.F.C.|isbn=|page=68|pages=|accessdate=2011-01-01}}</ref>

The Dungans have retained Chinese traditions which have disappeared in modern China. Traditional marriage practices are still widespread with matchmakers, the marriages conducted by the Dungan are similar to Chinese marriages in the 19th century, hairstyles worn by women and attire date back to the Qing dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA195&dq=shaanxi+dungan+marriage#v=onepage&q=shaanxi%20dungan%20marriage&f=false|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, Volume 1|author=Barbara A. West|year=2008|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=0-8160-7109-8|page=195|pages=|accessdate=2011-01-01}}</ref>

Shaanxi female attire is still Chinese, though the rest of the Dungans dress in western attire. Chopsticks are used by Dungans.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=CquTz6ps5YgC&pg=PA204&dq=dungan+chopsticks#v=onepage&q=dungan%20chopsticks&f=false|title=An Ethnohistorical dictionary of the Russian and Soviet empires|author1=James Stuart Olson |author2=Nicholas Charles Pappas |year=1994|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0-313-27497-5|page=204|pages=|accessdate=2011-01-01}}</ref> The cuisine of the Dungan resembles northwestern Chinese cuisine.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=DNXiAAAAMAAJ&dq=Dungan+food%2C+despite+some+changes%2C+modifications%2C+and+the+influence+of+the+surrounding+peoples+%2C+is+very++chinese&q=Dungan+food%2C+despite+some+changes%2C+modifications%2C+and+the+influence+of+the+surrounding+peoples+%2C+is+very+similar+to+the+type+of+Chinese+cooking+found+in+northwest+China|title=Soviet Dungan kolkhozes in the Kirghiz SSR and the Kazakh SSR|author=Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer|year=1979|publisher=Faculty of Asian Studies, ANU|isbn=0-909879-11-7|page=62|pages=|accessdate=2011-01-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=InRbAAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Dungans+still+eat+with+chopsticks%2C+and+the+names+of+their+national+dishes&q=But+their+food+is+still+Chinese%3B+they+eat+with+chopsticks%2C+and+all+the+names+of+their+national+dishes%2C+seasonings%2C+and+cooking+terms+are+|title=Asian and African studies, Volume 16|author=Ḥevrah ha-Mizraḥit ha-Yiśreʾelit|year=1983|publisher=Jerusalem Academic Press.|isbn=|page=338|pages=|accessdate=2011-01-01}}</ref>

Around the late 19th century the Bride Price was between 240 and 400 rubles for Dungan women. Dungans take other women such as Kirghiz and Tatars as brides willingly, or kidnap Kirghiz girls.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ODXYAAAAMAAJ&dq=poor+dungans+kirghiz+brides+tatar+sart&q=kirghiz+girls+abduct|title=Asian folklore studies, Volume 51|author=Asian Folklore Institute, Society for Asian Folklore, Nanzan Daigaku. Jinruigaku Kenkyūjo, Nanzan Shūkyō Bunka Kenkyūjo|year=1992|publisher=Nanzan University Institute of Anthropology|location=|isbn=|page=256|pages=|accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref>

Shaanxi Dungans are even conservative when marrying with other Dungans, they want only other Shaanxi Dungans marrying their daughters, while their sons are allowed to marry Gansu Dungan, Kirghiz, and Kazakh women.

As recently as 1962, inter-ethnic marriage was reported to be anathema among Dungans.<ref>{{cite book|title=Soviet Sociology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E-dHAAAAYAAJ&q=%2811%29+Two+ethnic+groups+in+Central+Asia+-+the+Dungans+and+the+local+Central+Asian+Arabs+-+were+highly+intolerant+of+marriages+outside+their+own+millieu+even+to+persons+of+the+same+faith.+As+reported+by+G.+G.+Stratanovich,+%2812%29+the+Dungans+adhered+strictly+to+both+ethnic+and+local+endogamy.&dq=%2811%29+Two+ethnic+groups+in+Central+Asia+-+the+Dungans+and+the+local+Central+Asian+Arabs+-+were+highly+intolerant+of+marriages+outside+their+own+millieu+even+to+persons+of+the+same+faith.+As+reported+by+G.+G.+Stratanovich,+%2812%29+the+Dungans+adhered+strictly+to+both+ethnic+and+local+endogamy.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAGoVChMIguz75oDIyAIVA1U-Ch12uQeJ|year=1962|publisher=International Arts and Sciences Press|page=42}}</ref>

==Identity==
During the [[Qing dynasty]], the term Zhongyuanren ({{zh|c=中原人|l= A person from the [[Central Plains (China)|Central Plains of China]]|labels=no}}) was synonymous with being mainstream Chinese, especially referring to [[Han Chinese]] and [[Hui people|Hui Muslims]] in [[Xinjiang]] or Central Asia.

For religious reasons, while Hui people do not consider themselves Han and are not Han-Chinese, they consider themselves part of the wider Chinese race and refer to themselves as Zhongyuanren.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=-lZIAAAAMAAJ&q=Similarities+between+the+Hui+and+Han+are+so+great+that+many+observers+have+concluded+the+Hui+to+be+%22not+a+separate+race+from+the+Han%22+but+only+%22Han+who+believe+in+Islam.+'+'+This+is+incorrect.+Hui+agree+they+are+Chinese+(Zhongyuan-+ren)+...&dq=Similarities+between+the+Hui+and+Han+are+so+great+that+many+observers+have+concluded+the+Hui+to+be+%22not+a+separate+race+from+the+Han%22+but+only+%22Han+who+believe+in+Islam.+'+'+This+is+incorrect.+Hui+agree+they+are+Chinese+(Zhongyuan-+ren)+...|title=Muslim peoples: a world ethnographic survey, Volume 1|author=Richard V. Weekes|year=1984|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=|page=334|isbn=0-313-23392-6|pages=|accessdate=2010-11-28}}</ref> The Dungan people, descendants of Hui who fled to Central Asia, called themselves Zhongyuanren in addition to the standard labels Lao Huihui and Huizi.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=CquTz6ps5YgC&pg=PA202&dq=zhongyuan+ren#v=onepage&q=zhongyuan%20ren&f=false|title=An Ethnohistorical dictionary of the Russian and Soviet empires|author1=James Stuart Olson |author2=Nicholas Charles Pappas |year=1994|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|location=|page=202|isbn=0-313-27497-5|pages=|accessdate=2010-11-28}}</ref> Zhongyuanren was used generally by Turkic Muslims to refer to Han and Hui Chinese people. When Central Asian invaders from Kokand invaded [[Kashgar]], in a letter the Kokandi commander criticizes the Kashgari Turkic Muslim Ishaq for allegedly not behaving like a Turkic-origin Muslim and wanting to be a Zhongyuanren .<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA215&dq=zhongyuan+ren#v=onepage&q=zhongyuan%20ren&f=false|title=Beyond the pass: economy, ethnicity, and empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864|author=James A. Millward|year=1998|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=|page=215|isbn=0-8047-2933-6|pages=|accessdate=2010-11-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=KTmO416hNQ8C&pg=PA148&dq=zhongyuan+ren#v=onepage&q=zhongyuan%20ren&f=false|title=The Empire and the Khanate: a political history of Qing relations with Khoqand c. 1760-1860|author=Laura Newby|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|location=|page=148|isbn=90-04-14550-8|pages=|accessdate=2010-11-28}}</ref>

==See also ==
* [[Dungan revolt (1862–1877)]], rebellion of various Muslim ethnic groups in Shaanxi and Gansu, China
* [[Dungan revolt (1895–1896)]], rebellion of various Muslim ethnic groups in Qinghai and Gansu, China

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Allès, Elisabeth. 2005. "The Chinese-speaking Muslims (Dungans) of Central Asia: A Case of Multiple Identities in a Changing Context," ''Asian Ethnicity'' 6, No. 2 (June): 121-134.
* Ding Hong. 2005. "A Comparative Study on the Cultures of the Dungan and the Hui People," ''Asian Ethnicity'' 6, No. 2 (June): 135-140.
* Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer. 1979. "Soviet Dungan [[kolkhoz]]es in the Kirghiz SSR and the Kazakh SSR (Oriental monograph series)". Faculty of Asian Studies, [[Australian National University]]. ISBN 0-909879-11-7.
* Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer. [http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/afs/pdf/a916.pdf Karakunuz: An Early Settlement of the Chinese Muslims in Russia], with an English translation of V.Tsibuzgin and A.Shmakov's work. "Asian Folklore Studies", Vol. 51 (1992), pp.&nbsp;243–279.
* [http://makuielys.info/wenz1/show.php?type=szzlsdmslmwh&id=1051383104 马通 (Ma Tong), "吉尔吉斯草原上的东干族穆斯林文化" (Dungans' Muslim culture on the  grasslands of Kyrgyzstan)], Series "丝绸之路上的穆斯林文化" (Muslim Cultures of the Silk Road), 2003-April–27. {{zh icon}}. (This article has some details additional to Rimsky-Korsakoff (1992)).
* Сушанло Мухамед, Имазов Мухаме. <!-- Sic: the former is "Mukhamed", with a "d", the latter "Mukhame", without. This is how they spell their names in their book. --> "Совет хуэйзў вынщүә". Фрунзе, "Мектеп" чубаншә, 1988. (Mukhamed Sushanlo, Mukhame <!-- sic, no "d" --> Imazov. "Dungan Soviet Literature: textbook for 9th and 10th grade". [[Bishkek|Frunze]], 1988). ISBN 5-658-00068-8.
* http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/afs/pdf/a916.pdf

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|حُوِ ذَو}}
* [https://www.google.com/maps/d/edit?mid=zP6_dhaEq-Y4.kwE9BYLrfK6k Map of Dungan settlement in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan]
* [http://www.thespektator.co.uk/issue_1.html 'A Very Dungan Wedding' Article on Kyrgyz Dungans]
* [http://dungans.com/forum/ Dungans Forum (rus)]
* [http://en.chinabroadcast.cn/1857/2004-7-9/53@130293.htm Chinabroadcast.cn]
* [http://www.hum.uit.no/a/trond/sintr.html Soviet Census data analyzed by mother tongue and second language, in English]
* [http://www.assamblea.kg/nkc_dungan_engl.htm Association of Dungans of the Kyrgyz Republic, in English and Russian]
*[http://s694.photobucket.com/albums/vv306/CyberChef/ Samples of the Dungans' Cuisine]

{{Ethnic groups in China}}
{{Overseas Chinese}}
{{Kazakhstan topics}}
{{Ethnic groups in Kazakhstan}}
{{Demographics of Kyrgyzstan}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dungan People}}
[[Category:Hui people]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Kyrgyzstan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Russia]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of Russia]]
[[Category:People of Northern Han Chinese descent]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Asia]]
[[Category:Russian people of Chinese descent]]