View source for Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}
{{Infobox Treaty
| name                = Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)
| long_name           =
| image               =CTBT Participation.svg
| image_width         =350 px
| image_alt           =Map of states' adoption of the CTBT
| caption             =Participation in the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{{legend|#5050ff|Annex 2, signed and ratified}}
{{legend|#dcdc00|Annex 2, signed}}
{{legend|#ff5151|Annex 2, non-signatory}}
{{Col-2}}
{{legend|#000080|Not Annex 2, signed and ratified}}
{{legend|#807f00|Not Annex 2, signed}}
{{legend|#800000|Not Annex 2, non-signatory}}
{{Col-end}}
| date_drafted        =
| date_signed         = {{start date and age|1996|09|10|df=yes}}
| location_signed     = [[New York City]]
| date_sealed         =
| date_effective      = Not in force
| condition_effective = 180 days after ratification by {{Collapsible list|status=uncollapsed|titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=all 44 Annex 2 countries| [[Algeria]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Belgium]], [[Brazil]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Canada]], [[Chile]], [[China]], [[Colombia]], [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]], [[Egypt]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Hungary]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran (Islamic Republic of)]], [[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Mexico]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Pakistan]], [[Peru]], [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Republic of Korea]], [[Russian Federation]], [[Slovakia]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Turkey]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]], [[United States of America]], [[Vietnam]], [[Zaire]]}}
| date_expiration     =
| signatories         = [[List of parties to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty|183]]
| ratifiers           = [[List of parties to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty|166]] (states that need to take further action for the treaty to enter into force: China, Egypt, India, Iran, Israel, North Korea, Pakistan, United States)
| depositor           =[[Secretary-General of the United Nations]]
| language            =
| languages           =Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish
| website             = http://www.ctbto.org/
| wikisource          =
}}

The '''Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty''' ('''CTBT''') is a [[multilateral treaty]] that bans all [[nuclear explosion]]s, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments. It was adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] on 10 September 1996 but has not entered into force as eight specific states have not ratified the treaty.

==History==
The movement for international control of [[nuclear weapon]]s began in 1945, with a call from [[Canada]] and [[United Kingdom]] for a conference on the subject.{{sfn|Polsby|1984|p=56}} In June 1946, [[Bernard Baruch]], an emissary of President [[Harry S. Truman]], proposed the [[Baruch Plan]] before the [[United Nations Atomic Energy Commission]], which called for an international system of controls on the production of atomic energy. The plan, which would serve as the basis for [[United States]] nuclear policy into the 1950s, was rejected by the [[Soviet Union]] as a US ploy to cement its nuclear dominance.{{sfn|Strode|1990|p=7}}{{sfn|Polsby|1984|pp=57–58}}

Between the [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity nuclear test]] of 16 July 1945 and the signing of the [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]] (PTBT) on 5 August 1963, 499 nuclear tests were conducted.<ref name=delcoigne>{{cite web |title=The Test Ban Treaty |last=Delcoigne |first=G.C. |publisher=IAEA |page=18 |url=https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull15-4/15403500322.pdf |accessdate=11 August 2016}}</ref> Much of the impetus for the PTBT, the precursor to the CTBT, was rising public concern surrounding the size and resulting [[nuclear fallout]] from underwater and atmospheric nuclear tests, particularly tests of powerful [[thermonuclear weapons]] (hydrogen bombs). The [[Castle Bravo]] test of 1 March 1954, in particular, attracted significant attention as the detonation resulted in fallout that spread over inhabited areas and sickened a group of Japanese fishermen.<ref name=atomicheritage>{{cite web |title=Limited or Partial Test Ban Treaty (LTBT/PTBT) |publisher=[[Atomic Heritage Foundation]] |url=http://www.atomicheritage.org/history/limited-or-partial-test-ban-treaty-ltbtptbt |accessdate=1 August 2016}}</ref><ref name=nsarchive>{{cite web |title=The Making of the Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1958–1963 |last1=Burr |first1=William |last2=Montford |first2=Hector L. |publisher=[[National Security Archive]] |date=3 August 2003 |url=http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB94/ |accessdate=7 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="nti">{{cite web|url=http://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/treaty-banning-nuclear-test-atmosphere-outer-space-and-under-water-partial-test-ban-treaty-ptbt/|title=Treaty Banning Nuclear Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water (Partial Test Ban Treaty) (PTBT)|date=26 October 2011|publisher=[[Nuclear Threat Initiative]]|accessdate=31 July 2016}}</ref>{{sfn|Rhodes|2005|p=542}}{{sfn|Strode|1990|p=31}} Between 1945 and 1963, the US conducted 215 atmospheric tests, the Soviet Union conducted 219, the UK conducted 21, and [[France]] conducted three.<ref name=nrdc>{{cite web |title=Archive of Nuclear Data |url=http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/nudb/datab15.asp |publisher=[[Natural Resources Defense Council]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010072829/http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/nudb/datab15.asp |archive-date=10 October 2007 |accessdate=6 August 2016}}</ref>

In 1954, following the Castle Bravo test, Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] of [[India]] issued the first appeal for a "standstill agreement" on testing, which was soon echoed by the British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]].{{sfn|Burns|Siracusa|2013|p=247}}{{sfn|Polsby|1984|p=58}}<ref name=bravo>{{cite web |title=1 March 1954 – Castle Bravo |publisher=Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization |url=https://www.ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/1-march-1954-castle-bravo/ |accessdate=31 July 2016}}</ref> Negotiations on a comprehensive test ban, primarily involved the US, UK, and Soviet Union, began in 1955 following a proposal by Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]].{{sfn|Rhodes|2008|p=72}}{{sfn|Reeves|1993|p=121}} Of primary concern throughout the negotiations, which would stretch with some interruptions to July 1963, was the system of verifying compliance with the test ban and detecting illicit tests. On the Western side, there were concerns that the Soviet Union would be able to circumvent any test ban and secretly leap ahead in the [[nuclear arms race]].{{sfn|Burns|Siracusa|2013|p=305}}{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=457–458}}{{sfn|Seaborg|1981|pp=8–9}} These fears were amplified following the US [[Operation Plumbbob|''Rainier'']] shot of 19 September 1957, which was the first contained underground test of a nuclear weapon. Though the US held a significant advantage in underground testing capabilities, there was worry that the Soviet Union would be able to covertly conduct underground tests during a test ban, as underground detonations were more difficult to detect than above-ground tests.{{sfn|Seaborg|1981|p=9}}{{sfn|Evangelista|1999|pp=85–86}} On the Soviet side, conversely, the on-site compliance inspections demanded by the US and UK were seen as amounting to espionage.{{sfn|Evangelista|1999|p=79}} Disagreement over verification would lead to the Anglo-American and Soviet negotiators abandoning a comprehensive test ban (i.e., a ban on all tests, including those underground) in favor of a partial ban, which would be finalized on 25 July 1963. The PTBT, joined by 123 states following the original three parties, banned detonations for military and civilian purposes underwater, in the atmosphere, and in outer space.{{sfn|Schlesinger|2002|pp=905–906, 910}}<ref name=siglist>{{cite web |title=Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty & Partial Test Ban Treaty Membership |url=http://www.nti.org/media/pdfs/apmctbt_10.pdf |publisher=Nuclear Threat Initiative |accessdate=11 August 2016 |date=8 June 2015}}</ref><ref name=unoda>{{cite web |title=Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water |publisher=[[United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs]] |accessdate=11 August 2016 |url=http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/test_ban/text}}</ref>

The PTBT had mixed results. On the one hand, enactment of the treaty was followed by a substantial drop in the atmospheric concentration of radioactive particles.<ref name=radiocarbon>{{cite web |title=Radiocarbon Dating |publisher=[[Utrecht University]] |url=http://web.science.uu.nl/AMS/Radiocarbon.htm |accessdate=31 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Technical Details: The Bomb Spike |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |url=http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/outreach/isotopes/bombspike.html |accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> On the other hand, [[nuclear proliferation]] was not halted entirely (though it may have been slowed) and nuclear testing continued at a rapid clip. Compared to the 499 tests from 1945 to the signing of the PTBT, 436 tests were conducted over the ten years following the PTBT.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Test Ban Treaty |last=Delcoigne |first=G.C. |publisher=IAEA |page=18 |url=https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull15-4/15403500322.pdf |accessdate=11 August 2016}}</ref>{{sfn|Rhodes|2008|p=72}} Furthermore, US and Soviet underground testing continued "venting" radioactive gas into the atmosphere.<ref name=nsa2>{{cite web |title=The Limited Test Ban Treaty – 50 Years Later: New Documents Throw Light on Accord Banning Atmospheric Nuclear Testing |last=Burr |first=William |publisher=National Security Archive |date=2 August 2013 |url=http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb433/ |accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> Additionally, though underground testing was generally safer than above-ground testing, underground tests continued to risk the leaking of [[radionuclide]]s, including [[plutonium]], into the ground.<ref>{{cite web |title=General Overview of the Effects of Nuclear Testing |publisher=CTBTO Preparatory Commission |url=https://www.ctbto.org/nuclear-testing/the-effects-of-nuclear-testing/general-overview-of-theeffects-of-nuclear-testing/ |accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |title=Report on the Health Consequences to the American Population from Nuclear Weapons Tests Conducted by the United States and Other Nations |chapter=Fallout from Nuclear Weapons |publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] |date=May 2005 |pages=20–21 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/fallout/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2003_10/LTBT|work=Arms Control Association|author=Daryl Kimball and Wade Boese|date= June 2009|accessdate=21 May 2012|title=Limited Test Ban Treaty Turns 40}}</ref> From 1964 through 1996, the year of the CTBT's adoption, an estimated 1,377 underground nuclear tests were conducted. The final non-underground (atmospheric or underwater) test was conducted by [[China]] in 1980.<ref name=sipritally>{{cite book |url=https://www.ctbto.org/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/Sipri_table12b.pdf |title=Armaments, Disarmament and International Security |author=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, NY |pages=555–556}}</ref><ref name=nuclear>{{cite web|work=Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization|year=2012|url= http://www.ctbto.org/nuclear-testing/history-of-nuclear-testing/world-overview/page-1-world-overview/ |title= Nuclear testing world overview |accessdate=21 May 2012}}</ref>

The PTBT has been seen as a step towards the [[Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty]] (NPT) of 1968, which directly made reference to the PTBT.<ref name=faschron>{{cite web |title=Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Chronology |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |url=http://fas.org/nuke/control/ctbt/chron1.htm |accessdate=7 August 2016}}</ref> Under the NPT, non-nuclear weapon states were prohibited from possessing, manufacturing, and acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were committed to the goal of total [[nuclear disarmament]]. However, India, [[Pakistan]], and [[Israel]] have declined to sign the NPT on grounds that such a treaty is fundamentally discriminatory as it places limitations on states that do not have nuclear weapons while making no efforts to curb weapons development by declared nuclear weapons states.{{cite needed|date=August 2016}}

In 1974, a step towards a comprehensive test ban was made with the [[Threshold Test Ban Treaty]] (TTBT), ratified by the US and Soviet Union, which banned underground tests with yields above 150 kilotons.<ref name=nsa2/><ref>{{cite web |title=The Flawed Test Ban Treaty |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]] |date=27 March 1984 |url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/1984/03/the-flawed-test-ban-treaty |accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> In April 1976, the two states reached agreement on the [[Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty]] (PNET), which concerns nuclear detonations outside the weapons sites discussed in the TTBT. As in the TTBT, the US and Soviet Union agreed to bar [[peaceful nuclear explosions]] (PNEs) at these other locations with yields above 150 kilotons, as well as group explosions with total yields in excess of 1,500 kilotons. To verify compliance, the PNET requires that states rely on [[national technical means of verification]], share information on explosions, and grant on-site access to counterparties. The TTBT and PNET did not enter into force for the US and Soviet Union until 11 December 1990.<ref name=pnetreaty>{{cite web |title=Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty (PNET) |url=http://www.state.gov/www/global/arms/treaties/pne1.html#1 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |accessdate=14 August 2016}}</ref>[[File:Gorbachev and Reagan 1987-9.jpg|thumb|250px|Reagan and Gorbachev, December 1987]]

In October 1977, the US, UK, and Soviet Union returned to negotiations over a test ban. The three nuclear powers made notable progress in the late 1970s, agreeing to terms on a ban on all testing, including a temporary prohibition on PNEs, but continued disagreements over the compliance mechanisms led to an end to negotiations ahead of [[Ronald Reagan]]'s inauguration as President in 1981.<ref name=faschron/> In 1985, Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] announced a unilateral testing moratorium, and in December 1986, Reagan reaffirmed US commitment to pursue the long-term goal of a comprehensive test ban. In November 1987, negotiations on a test ban restarted, followed by a joint US-Soviet program to research underground-test detection in December 1987.<ref name=faschron/><ref>{{cite news |title=In Remotest Nevada, a Joint U.S. and Soviet Test |last=Blakeslee |first=Sandra |date=18 August 1988 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/18/world/in-remotest-nevada-a-joint-us-and-soviet-test.html |accessdate=11 August 2016}}</ref>

==Negotiations==
Given the political situation prevailing in the subsequent decades, little progress was made in nuclear disarmament until the end of the [[Cold War]] in 1991. Parties to the PTBT held an amendment conference that year to discuss a proposal to convert the Treaty into an instrument banning all nuclear-weapon tests. With strong support from the UN General Assembly, negotiations for a comprehensive test-ban treaty began in 1993.

===Adoption===
Intensive efforts were made over the next three years to draft the Treaty text and its two annexes. However, the [[Conference on Disarmament]], in which negotiations were being held, did not succeed in reaching consensus on the adoption of the text. Under the direction of Prime Minister [[John Howard]] and Foreign Minister [[Alexander Downer]], [[Australia]]{{Citation needed|date=October 2013}} then sent the text to the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in [[New York City|New York]], where it was submitted as a draft resolution.<ref>{{cite web|title=Comprehensive nuclear-test-ban treaty: draft resolution|url=http://unbisnet.un.org:8080/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session=X204697124L65.19785&profile=bibga&uri=full=3100001~!396802~!33&ri=1&aspect=power&menu=search&source=~!horizon#focus|accessdate=3 December 2011|date=6 September 1996|work=[[United Nations]]}}</ref> On 10 September 1996, the Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) was adopted by a large majority, exceeding two-thirds of the General Assembly's Membership.<ref name="un.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/50/ares50-245.htm|title=Resolution adopted by the general assembly:50/245. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty|date=17 September 1996|accessdate=3 December 2011|work=[[United Nations]]}}</ref>

===Obligations===
(Article I):<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctbto.org/fileadmin/content/treaty/treaty_text.pdf|title=Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty CTBTO|accessdate=4 December 2011|work=[[CTBTO Preparatory Commission]]}}</ref>
#Each State Party undertakes not to carry out any [[nuclear weapon]] test explosion or any other nuclear explosion, and to prohibit and prevent any such nuclear explosion at any place under its jurisdiction or control.
#Each State Party undertakes, furthermore, to refrain from causing, encouraging, or in any way participating in the carrying out of any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion.

==Status==
{{further|List of parties to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty}}
The Treaty was adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] on 10 September 1996.<ref name=untc/> It opened for signature in New York on 24 September 1996,<ref name=untc>United Nations Treaty Collection (2009).  "[http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&id=488&chapter=26&lang=en Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]". Retrieved 23 August 2009.</ref> when it was signed by 71 States, including five of the eight then [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear-capable states]]. As of October 2016, 166 states have [[Ratification#Ratification of an international treaty|ratified]] the CTBT and another 17 states have signed but not ratified it.<ref name=status>{{cite web|work=[[Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization]]|year=2011|url=http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/status-of-signature-and-ratification/|title=Status of Signature and Ratification|accessdate=20 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |author=David E. Hoffman
 |publication-date=1 November 2011 |title=Supercomputers offer tools for nuclear testing — and solving nuclear mysteries
 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]; National |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/national-security/supercomputers-offer-tools-for-nuclear-testing--and-solving-nuclear-mysteries/2011/10/03/gIQAjnngdM_story.html?wpisrc=nl_tech |deadurl=no |accessdate=30 November 2013}}<br>''In this news article, the number of states ratifying was reported as 154.</ref>

The treaty will enter into force 180 days after the 44 states listed in Annex 2 of the treaty have ratified it. These "Annex 2 states" are states that participated in the CTBT’s negotiations between 1994 and 1996 and possessed nuclear power reactors or research reactors at that time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctbto.org/press-centre/highlights/2008/the-russian-federations-support-for-thecomprehensive-nuclear-test-ban-treaty/14-october-2008-page-2/?textonly=1|title=The Russian Federation's support for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty|work=[[CTBTO Preparatory Commission]]|year=2008|accessdate=4 December 2011}}</ref> As of 2016, eight Annex 2 states have not ratified the treaty: [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[Egypt]], [[Iran]], [[Israel]] and the [[United States]] have signed but not ratified the Treaty; [[India]], [[North Korea]] and [[Pakistan]]  have not signed it.<ref>{{cite web |title=STATE DEPARTMENT TELEGRAM 012545 TO INTSUM COLLECTIVE, "INTSUM: INDIA: NUCLEAR TEST UNLIKELY" |work=Nuclear Proliferation International History Project |url=https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/116347 }}</ref>

==Monitoring==
[[geophysics|Geophysical]] and other technologies are used to monitor for compliance with the Treaty: [[forensic seismology]], [[hydrophone|hydroacoustics]], [[infrasound]], and [[radionuclide]] monitoring. The technologies are used to monitor the underground, the waters and the atmosphere for any sign of a nuclear explosion. Statistical theories and methods are integral to CTBT monitoring
providing confidence in verification analysis. Once the Treaty enters into force, on site inspection will be provided for where concerns about compliance arise.

The [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission|Preparatory Commission]] for the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization]] (CTBTO), an international organization headquartered in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]], was created to build the verification regime, including establishment and provisional operation of the network of monitoring stations, the creation of an international data centre, and development of the On Site Inspection capability.

The monitoring network consists of 337 facilities located all over the globe. As of May 2012, more than 260 facilities have been certified. The monitoring stations register data that is transmitted to the international data centre in Vienna for processing and analysis. The data are sent to states that have signed the Treaty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctbto.org/press-centre/press-releases/2009/us-nuclear-security-administrator-dagostinovisits-the-ctbto/|title=US nuclear security administrator dagostino visits the CTBTO|accessdate=4 December 2011|date=15 September 2009|work=[[CTBTO Preparatory Commission]]}}</ref>

===Subsequent nuclear testing===
Three countries have tested nuclear weapons since the CTBT opened for signature in 1996. India and Pakistan both carried out two sets of tests in 1998. North Korea carried out five announced tests in 2006, 2009, 2013, and two in 2016. All five North Korean tests were picked up by the International Monitoring System set up by the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission. A North Korean test is believed to have taken place in January 2016, evidenced by an "artificial earthquake" measured as a magnitude 5.1 by the U.S. Geological Survey.<ref name=highlight>{{cite web|work=[[Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization]]|year=2012|url= http://www.ctbto.org/press-centre/highlights/2007/the-ctbt-verification-regime-put-to-the-test-the-event-in-the-dprk-on-9-october-2006/page-1/?Fsize=atextonly%3D1 |title= Highlight 2007: The CTBT Verification Regime Put to the Test – The Event in the DPRK on 9 October 2006 |accessdate=21 May 2012}}</ref><ref name=press>{{cite web|work=[[Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization]]|year=2012|url= http://www.ctbto.org/press-centre/highlights/2009/experts-sure-about-nature-of-the-dprk-event/?Fsize=atextonly%3D1|title= Press Release June 2009: Experts Sure About Nature of the DPRK Event|accessdate=21 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=North Korea announces it conducted nuclear test |publisher=CNN |last=McKirdy |first=Euan |date=6 January 2016 |url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/01/05/asia/north-korea-seismic-event/ |accessdate=15 August 2016}}</ref>

==See also==
{{commons category|Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty}}
* [[List of weapons of mass destruction treaties]]
* [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization]]
* [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission]]
* [[National technical means of verification]]
* [[Nuclear-free zone]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Publications===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |title=Eisenhower: Soldier and President |last=Ambrose |first=Stephen E. |author-link=Stephen E. Ambrose |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York, NY |year=1991 |isbn=978-0671747589 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xxeuSvsmfscC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=A Global History of the Nuclear Arms Race: Weapons, Strategy, and Politics – Volume 1 |last1=Burns |first1=Richard Dean |last2=Siracusa |first2=Joseph M. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |year=2013 |isbn=978-1440800955 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EX2jAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Unarmed Forces: The Transnational Movement to End the Cold War |last=Evangelista |first=Matthew |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY |year=1999 |isbn=978-0801487842 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KM6v0hib_FMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Political Innovation in America: The Politics of Policy Initiation |last=Polsby |first=Nelson W. |author-link=Nelson W. Polsby |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |year=1984 |isbn=978-0300034288 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EfzU2sgRXhUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=The Other Side of the Table: The Soviet Approach to Arms Control |chapter=Soviet Policy Toward a Nuclear Test Ban: 1958–1963 |last=Strode |first=Rebecca |editor-last=Mandelbaum |editor-first=Michael |editor-link=Michael Mandelbaum |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations Press |location=New York and London |year=1990 |isbn=978-0876090718 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fhkAcOAWF2oC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=President Kennedy: Profile of Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QBAP9SPYFBoC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false |last=Reeves |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Reeves (American writer) |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York, NY |year=1993 |isbn=978-0671892890 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rSgfbK0hi2UC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |last=Rhodes |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Rhodes |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York, NY |year=2005 |isbn=978-0684824147 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x0l3R0BMR6YC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |last=Rhodes |first=Richard |publisher=Vintage |location=New York, NY |year=2008 |isbn=978-0375713941 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=[[A Thousand Days|A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House]] |last=Schlesinger |first=Arthur Meier Jr. |author-link=Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=New York, NY |year=2002 |isbn=978-0618219278 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban |last=Seaborg |first=Glenn T. |author-link=Glenn T. Seaborg |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA |year=1981 |isbn=978-0520049611 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9F33unNskjUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://www.ctbto.org/fileadmin/content/treaty/treatytext.tt.html Full text of the treaty]
* [http://www.ctbto.org CTBTO Preparatory Commission]{{spaced ndash}}official news and information
* [http://svaradarajan.blogspot.com/1999/10/test-ban-test-us-rejection-has.html The Test Ban Test: U.S. Rejection has Scuttled the CTBT]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200602/s1577409.htm US conducts subcritical nuclear test] ABC News, 24 February 2006
* [http://www.ippnw.org/NukeNPTPrepCom2003EPWs.html International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, 1991]
* [http://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/ctbtissue.asp Daryl Kimball and Christine Kucia, Arms Control Association, 2002]
* [https://fas.org/nuke/control/ctbt/text/ctbt_report.html General John M. Shalikashvili, Special Advisor to the President and the Secretary of State for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]
* [http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/acato.asp Christopher Paine, Senior Researcher with NRDC's Nuclear Program, 1999]
* [http://blogcritics.org/archives/2008/07/18/203804.php Obama or McCain Can Finish Journey to Nuclear Test Ban Treaty]
* For the number of nuclear explosions conducted in various parts of the globe from 1954-1998 see{{spaced ndash}}http://blip.tv/file/1662914/
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/ctbt/ctbt.html Introductory note by Thomas Graham, Jr., procedural history note and audiovisual material] on the ''Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty'' in the [http://www.un.org/law/avl/ United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/Asada_ACD.html Lecture by Masahiko Asada] entitled ''Nuclear Weapons and International Law'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
* [https://opencrs.com/document/RL33548/ Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Background and Current Developments] [[Congressional Research Service]]
* [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/nuclear-history-documents/ The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project] or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents, oral history interviews and other empirical sources.

{{Nuclear weapons limitation treaty|state=expanded}}
{{United Nations}}

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