https://en.encyclopedia.kz/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Tim%21Kazakhstan Encyclopedia - User contributions [en]2026-07-03T04:18:53ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.23.15https://en.encyclopedia.kz/index.php/1951_anti-Chechen_pogrom_in_Eastern_Kazakhstan1951 anti-Chechen pogrom in Eastern Kazakhstan2017-04-19T17:33:15Z<p>Tim!: +Category:April 1951 events; +Category:May 1951 events; +Category:June 1951 events using HotCat</p>
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<div>{{Infobox civil conflict<br />
| title = 1951 anti-Chechen pogrom in Eastern Kazakhstan<br />
| partof = the [[Chechen–Russian conflict]]<br />
| image = <br />
| caption = <br />
| place = {{flagu|Soviet Union}}<br />
| coordinates =<br />
| date = {{longitem|{{start date|10 April 1951|df=yes}}{{spaced ndash}}{{end date|18 June 1951|df=yes}}<br/>{{smaller|({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=04|day1=10|year1=1951|month2=06|day2=18|year2=1951}})}}}}<br />
| status = '''Ended'''<br />
| time = | timezone = <br />
| goals = <br />
| methods = {{hlist |[[Riot]]s}}<br />
| injuries = <br />
| fatalities = 40-41 killed<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Chechen–Russian conflict}}<br />
The '''anti-Chechen pogrom in Eastern Kazakhstan''' took place in spring and summer, 1951, in Eastern [[Kazakhstan]] (part of the [[Soviet Union]] at the time), upon ethnic tensions between mainly ethnic [[Russians]] and [[Operation Lentil (Caucasus)|deported]] [[Chechens]]. A [[blood libel]] rumor, according to which the Chechens allegedly use "Christian blood in their rituals" may also have contributed to the escalation of events. The riots occurred in 3 cities - [[Ridder, Kazakhstan|Leninogorsk]], [[Oskemen|Ust-Kamenogorsk]] and [[Zyryanovsk]].<ref name=cent/><br />
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The main riots took place on April 10, 1951, in the Chechen-city neighbourhood of [[Ridder, Kazakhstan|Leninogorsk]].<ref name=cent>[http://www.centrasia.ru/newsA.php?st=1049445300]</ref> The riots, led by groups of amnestied criminals upon the Chechen civilians led to the deaths of 40-41 people, mainly of [[Peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasian origins]]. Arrests were late made by Soviet authorities on initiators and 50 people from among the criminals were persecuted by courts, though no riot leaders were identified.<br />
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==See also==<br />
*[[ethnic violence]]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
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[[Category:1951 in the Soviet Union]]<br />
[[Category:Anti-Caucasus sentiment]]<br />
[[Category:History of Chechnya]]<br />
[[Category:History of the Soviet Union and Soviet Russia]]<br />
[[Category:History of Kazakhstan]]<br />
[[Category:Islamophobia]]<br />
[[Category:Pogroms]]<br />
[[Category:Riots and civil disorder in the Soviet Union]]<br />
[[Category:April 1951 events]]<br />
[[Category:May 1951 events]]<br />
[[Category:June 1951 events]]</div>Tim!https://en.encyclopedia.kz/index.php/Category:Ambassadors_of_Kazakhstan_to_UzbekistanCategory:Ambassadors of Kazakhstan to Uzbekistan2017-04-17T07:38:06Z<p>Tim!: /* top */add portals using AWB</p>
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<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}}<br />
{{Infobox UN resolution<br />
|number = 732<br />
|organ = SC<br />
|date = 23 January<br />
|year = 1992<br />
|meeting = 3,034<br />
|code = S/RES/732<br />
|document = http://undocs.org/S/RES/732(1992)<br />
|for = <br />
|abstention = <br />
|against = <br />
|subject = Admission of new Members to the UN: Kazakhstan<br />
|result = Adopted <br />
|image = LocationKazakhstan.svg<br />
|caption = Location of Kazakhstan<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''United Nations Security Council resolution 732''', adopted without a vote on 23 January 1992, after examining the application of the [[Kazakhstan|Republic of Kazakhstan]] for membership in the United Nations, the Council recommended to the [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] that Kazakhstan be admitted. <br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[List of United Nations member states]]<br />
* [[List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 701 to 800]] (1991–1993)<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*[http://undocs.org/S/RES/732(1992) Text of the Resolution at undocs.org]<br />
{{wikisource}}<br />
<br />
{{UNSCR 1992}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1992 United Nations Security Council resolutions]]<br />
[[Category:History of Kazakhstan]] <br />
[[Category:1992 in Kazakhstan]]<br />
[[Category:Foreign relations of Kazakhstan]]<br />
[[Category:United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning United Nations membership|*0732]]<br />
[[Category:January 1992 events]]</div>Tim!https://en.encyclopedia.kz/index.php/2016_Aktobe_shootings2016 Aktobe shootings2017-03-30T17:25:28Z<p>Tim!: added Category:June 2016 events in Asia using HotCat</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox civilian attack<br />
| title = 2016 Aktobe shootings<br />
| partof = <br />
| image = <br />
| image_size = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| map = <br />
| map_size = <br />
| map_alt = <br />
| map_caption = <br />
| location = [[Aktobe]], [[Kazakhstan]]<br />
| target = Two gun shops, military base and police.<br />
| coordinates = <br />
| date = 5–10 June 2016<br />
| time = <br />
| timezone = <br />
| type = [[Spree shooting]], [[robbery]], [[carjacking|hijacking]], [[shootout]]<br />
| fatalities = 25 (7 victims, 18 perpetrators)<ref>{{cite web|title=Death toll from Aktobe attack reaches 19: Kazakh police|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-shooting-toll-idUSKCN0YT0M3?il=0|website=reuters.com|publisher=Reuters.com|accessdate=June 7, 2016}}</ref><ref name="moscowtimes">{{cite web|last1=Dubnov|first1=Arkady|title=Nazarbayev on the Rocks: 'Terror,' 'Coup' Claims Shake Kazakhsta|url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/opinion/opinion/article/nazarbayev-on-the-rocks-terror-coup-claims-shake-kazakhstan/571550.html|website=themoscowtimes.com|publisher=The Moscow Times|accessdate=June 9, 2016}}</ref><ref name="economist">{{cite web|title=Islamist violence and a spate of protests have rattled Kazakhstan’s ruler|url=http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21700499-shaking-throne-central-asias-biggest-country-islamist-violence-and-spate-protests-have|website=economist.com|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=June 10, 2016}}</ref><br />
| injuries = 40+<ref name="childrencamp">{{cite web|title=Live rounds fired at kids summer camp in Kazakhstan’s west|url=https://www.rt.com/news/345812-kazakhstan-camp-attack-kids/|website=rt.com|publisher=RT|accessdate=June 8, 2016}}</ref><ref name="ap" /><br />
| perps = Islamic extremists<br />
| victims = <!-- or | victim = --><br />
| weapons = <br />
| numparts = <br />
| dfens = <!-- or | dfen = --><br />
| motive =<br />
| website = <!-- URL|example.com}} --><br />
}}<br />
The '''2016 Aktobe shootings''' were a spate of shootings on civilian and military targets in [[Aktobe]], [[Kazakhstan]], in June 2016. On 5 June, two attacks occurred at gun stores, while a third attack was aimed at a military unit. Multiple shootouts between terrorists and police occurred over the next few days. Another shooting occurred at children's camp on 8 June.<ref name="childrencamp" /> The shootings left 7 victims dead and 37 injured. Eighteen attackers were killed and nine were arrested.<ref name="bbc">{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan: Gunmen attack gun shops and army unit in Aktobe|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-36455744|website=bbc.com|publisher=BBC|accessdate=June 5, 2016}}</ref><ref name="mourning" /><br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
Terrorism and [[extremism]] are rare in Kazakhstan,<ref name="bbc" /><ref name="reuters" /> however, [[Aktobe]] was the site of [[2011 Aktobe bombing|Kazakhstan's first suicide bombing]] in 2011.<ref name="bbc" /><br />
<br />
Despite the fact that Kazakhstan is usually peaceful, [[2010s oil glut|the recent plunge]] in [[petroleum]] prices, Kazakhstan's main export, has threatened stability in the country as was evidenced by a number of protests in April and May 2016.<ref name="reuters" /> Recent laws allowing foreigners to purchase land in Kazakhstan had also caused uproar.<ref name="ap" /><br />
<br />
==The shootings==<br />
===Initial shootings===<br />
The group that committed the attacks, which numbered to at least sixteen people,<ref name="rt">{{cite web|title=Police arrest, kill radical Islamist gang, after attack on military base in Kazakhstan|url=https://www.rt.com/news/345468-kazakhstan-shooting-hostages-attacks/|website=rt.com|publisher=Russia Today|accessdate=June 5, 2016}}</ref> first robbed two gun shops early on 5 June, killing a guard and clerk at one shop and killing a customer at the other. They also wounded three policemen before three of the attackers were killed.<ref name="reuters">{{cite web|title=Suspected militants attack Kazakh guard base, kill six|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-extremists-shooting-idUSKCN0YR0IX|website=reuters.com|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=June 5, 2016}}</ref> The surviving attackers then hijacked a bus and rammed open a gate to a national guard base where they killed three servicemen and wounded nine before one attacker was killed.<ref name="reuters" /><br />
<br />
Seven attackers were arrested.<ref name="rt" /><br />
<br />
===Later shootings===<br />
The following night after the first shootings, five more militants were killed in gun battles with police and two more were arrested.<ref>{{cite web|title=Five Aktobe Attack Suspects Killed Overnight in Clashes with Antiterrorism Forces|url=http://astanatimes.com/2016/06/3-4/|website=astanatimes.com|publisher=Astana Times|accessdate=June 6, 2016}}</ref> More police officers were reported to have been killed or injured during the firefights.<ref name="moscowtimes" /><br />
<br />
On 8 June, a shooting occurred at a children's camp in Aktobe. A person in a white car fired at security guards from a shotgun, but no one was injured.<ref name="childrencamp" /><br />
<br />
Early on June 10, five militants were killed and two policemen were wounded in more gun battles in Aktobe.<ref name="ap">{{cite web|last1=Isachenkov|first1=Vladimir|title=Kazakhstan says 5 suspected militants killed in sweep|url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/1157adae8e4d4574b5ff62d94f5eead5|website=bigstory.ap.org|publisher=Associated Press|accessdate=June 10, 2016}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Responsibility==<br />
The perpetrators of the shootings have been described by police press-service as "followers of radical, non-traditional religious movements", a term that usually refers to Islamic extremists in Kazakhstan.<ref name="bbc" /><ref name="reuters" /><br />
<br />
Kazakh president [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]] has claimed that the attacks were ordered from abroad in an attempt to destabilize Kazakhstan.<ref name="mourning" /><br />
<br />
On 10 June, Nazarbayev told his security council the attackers were [[Salafism|salafists]] and probably included [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State]] militants who had returned to Kazakhstan from [[Syria]].<ref name="ap" /><br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
Kazakhstan's president [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]] declared 9 June a national day of mourning. He also noted that the attacks occurred on the eve of [[Ramadan]] and claimed that the attacks were ordered from abroad. He also suggested that the attacks were an attempt to start a "[[colour revolution]]" in Kazakhstan.<ref name="mourning">{{cite web|last1=Orazgaliyeva|first1=Malika|title=Kazakh President Declares June 9 as National Day of Mourning|url=http://astanatimes.com/2016/06/kazakh-president-declares-june-9-as-national-day-of-mourning/|website=astanatimes.com|publisher=Astana Times|accessdate=June 9, 2016}}</ref> Nazarbayev also called for harsher criminal penalties on Kazakhs who joined militant groups, tighter security at gun shops and military installations and for stricter migration control.<ref name="ap" /><br />
<br />
Some observers have seen attacks as evidence of rising tensions between different political groups.<ref name="ap" /> Others have stated the attack shows a weakening in president Nazarbayev's control of the country.<ref name="economist" /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
{{Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Aktobe shootings}}<br />
[[Category:2016 in Kazakhstan]]<br />
[[Category:Aktobe Region|Shootings]]<br />
[[Category:Attacks on military installations]]<br />
[[Category:Hijacking]]<br />
[[Category:ISIL terrorist incidents]]<br />
[[Category:Islamic terrorist incidents in 2016]]<br />
[[Category:June 2016 crimes]]<br />
[[Category:Mass murder in 2016]]<br />
[[Category:Spree shootings]]<br />
[[Category:Terrorism in Kazakhstan]]<br />
[[Category:Terrorist incidents in Kazakhstan in 2016]]<br />
[[Category:June 2016 events in Asia]]</div>Tim!https://en.encyclopedia.kz/index.php/Category:Establishments_in_Kazakhstan_by_millenniumCategory:Establishments in Kazakhstan by millennium2017-02-04T10:05:16Z<p>Tim!: /* top */add category using AWB</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Establishments in Kazakhstan|Millennium]]<br />
[[Category:Millennia in Kazakhstan| Establishments]]<br />
[[Category:Establishments in Asia by millennium|Kazakhstan]]<br />
[[Category:Establishments by millennium and country|Kazakhstan]]</div>Tim!https://en.encyclopedia.kz/index.php/Optional_Protocol_to_the_Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimination_against_WomenOptional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women2017-01-29T12:10:03Z<p>Tim!: added Category:1999 in women's history using HotCat</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}}<br />
{{Infobox Treaty<br />
| name = OP-CEDAW<br />
| long_name = Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women<br />
| image =<br />
| image_width =<br />
| caption =<br />
| type =<br />
| date_drafted =<br />
| date_signed = 6 October 1999<ref name=parties/><br />
| location_signed = New York<ref name=parties/><br />
| date_sealed =<br />
| date_effective = 22 December 2000<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.discriminationagainstwomen.net/discrimination-against-women |title=Discrimination Against Women Statistics |date=21 December 2000 |accessdate=15 July 2008}}</ref><br />
| condition_effective = 10 ratifications<ref name=art16>OP-CEDAW, Article 16.</ref><br />
| date_expiration =<br />
| signatories = 80<ref name=parties/><br />
| parties = 108<ref name=parties/><br />
| depositor = [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|UN Secretary-General]]<ref name=art20>OP-CEDAW, Article 20.</ref><br />
| language =<br />
| languages = Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish<ref name=art21>OP-CEDAW, Article 21.</ref><br />
| website =<br />
| wikisource =<br />
}}<br />
[[File:OP-CEDAW-members.svg|thumb|right|400px|States parties and signatories to the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women<br />
{{legend|#008000|states parties which recognise competence for Articles 8 and 9}}<br />
{{legend|#FFFF00|states parties which do not recognise competence for Articles 8 and 9}}<br />
{{legend|#00ff00|non-state parties signatories}}<br />
{{legend|#b9b9b9|non-state parties non-signatories}}]]<br />
The '''Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women''' (OP-CEDAW) is an international [[treaty]] which establishes complaint and inquiry mechanisms for the [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]] (CEDAW). Parties to the Protocol allow the [[Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women]] to hear complaints from individuals or inquire into "grave or systematic violations" of the Convention. The Protocol has led to a number of decisions against member states on issues such as [[domestic violence]], [[parental leave]] and [[forced sterilization]], as well as an investigation into the [[Female homicides in Ciudad Juárez|systematic killing of women]] in the Mexican city of [[Ciudad Juárez|Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua]].<br />
<br />
The Protocol was adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] on 6 October 1999, and in force from 22 December 2000. As of October 2016, the Protocol has 80 [[Signature|signatories]] and 108 [[Ratification|parties]].<ref name=parties>{{cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-8-b&chapter=4&clang=_en |title=Parties to the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=11 October 2016}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Genesis==<br />
<br />
In 1979, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted the [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]] (CEDAW).<ref>{{cite web |title=Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women New York, 18 December 1979 |url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cedaw.htm |publisher=UN OHCHR |accessdate=6 September 2009}}</ref> The Convention outlawed discrimination against women,<ref>CEDAW, Article 2.</ref> but did not include any mechanism by which this prohibition could be legally enforced.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Meron |first=Theodor |title=Enhancing the Effectiveness of the Prohibition of Discrimination Against Women |journal=American Journal of International Law |volume=84 |issue=1 |year=1990 |pages=213–217 |jstor=2203022 |doi=10.2307/2203022}}</ref><br />
<br />
An individual complaints mechanism was suggested during the original drafting of CEDAW, but was rejected at the time.<ref name=gomez>{{cite journal |author=Felipe Gómez Isa |title=The Optional Protocol for the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: Strengthening the Protection Mechanisms of Women’s Human Rights |journal=Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=291–321 [305] |year=2003|url=http://www.ajicl.org/AJICL2003/vol202/Gomez.pdf}}</ref> Fifteen years later, the [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]] of the 1993 [[World Conference on Human Rights]] suggested that new procedures were needed to implement the Convention, and suggested a "[[right of petition]]".<ref name="DAW-history">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/protocol/history.htm |title=CEDAW: History of the Optional Protocol |publisher=UN [[Division for the Advancement of Women]] |accessdate=28 July 2008}}</ref> An independent expert group produced a draft in 1994,<ref>{{cite book |author=Kwong-leung Tang |editor-first=Caroline |editor-last=Sweetman |title=Women and leadership |publisher=Oxfam |year=2000 |pages=65–72 |chapter=The Leadership Role of International Law in Enforcing Women's Rights: The Optional Protocol to the Women's Convention |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=0-85598-452-X}}</ref> containing a complaint procedure and an inquiry procedure, and this was adopted for further study by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in early 1995.<ref name="CEDAW-14">{{cite web |url=http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N96/179/04/IMG/N9617904.pdf?OpenElement |title=Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (Fourteenth Session) |publisher=UN CEDAW |date= |accessdate=28 July 2008 |pages=2–5}}</ref> The idea of an Optional Protocol was further endorsed by the [[Fourth World Conference on Women]] in 1995, which called for "the elaboration (of) a draft optional protocol to the Women's Convention that could enter into force as soon as possible."<ref name="AI-history">{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/IOR51/008/2002/en/71b6f44d-d80e-11dd-9df8-936c90684588/ior510082002en.html |title=Claiming Women's rights: the Optional Protocol to the UN Women's Convention |publisher=Amnesty International |year=2001 |accessdate=17 December 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
In March 1996 the [[United Nations Commission on the Status of Women|Commission on the Status of Women]] established an open-ended working group to produce a formal draft.<ref name="AI-history"/> This reported back after three years of deliberation in early 1999. The Optional Protocol was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 6 October 1999.<ref>United Nations General Assembly Resolution 54/4, 6 October 1999.</ref><br />
<br />
==Summary==<br />
<br />
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women outlaws discrimination on the basis of gender, and obliges its parties to repeal discriminatory laws and guarantee equality in the fields of health, employment, and education.<ref name=AI-history/> The Optional Protocol is a subsidiary agreement to the Convention. It does not establish any new rights, but rather allows the rights guaranteed in the Convention to be enforced.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.awid.org/eng/Library/The-Optional-Protocol-to-CEDAW-its-applicability-on-the-ground |title=The Optional Protocol to CEDAW & its applicability "on the ground" |publisher=Association for Women's Rights in Development |date=12 February 2008 |accessdate=2014-05-14}}</ref><br />
<br />
Articles 1–7 create an individual complaints mechanism similar to those of the [[First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]], [[Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities]] and Article 14 of the [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]]. Parties agree to recognise the competence of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to consider complaints "by or on behalf of" individuals or groups who claim their rights under the Convention have been violated.<ref name=Art1>OP-CEDAW, Article 1.</ref> If a complaint is submitted on behalf of a victim, then this requires their consent, unless the submitter can justify acting without it.<ref name=Art2>OP-CEDAW, Article 2.</ref> What constitutes "justification" in such a case is up to the Committee.<ref name=MacKinnon>{{cite journal |title=CEDAW's Optional Protocol Procedures |last=MacKinnon |first=Catherine |journal=Interights Bulletin |volume=14 |issue=4 |year=2004 |pages=173–174 }}</ref> The ability for complaints to be submitted on behalf of victims is seen as vital in allowing NGOs such as women's organizations and human rights groups to use the Protocol to enforce the Convention.<ref name="AI-history"/><br />
<br />
Complainants must have exhausted all domestic remedies, and anonymous complaints and complaints referring to events which occurred before the country concerned joined the Optional Protocol are not permitted.<ref>OP-CEDAW, Article 4.</ref> The Committee can request information from and make recommendations to a party,<ref>OP-CEDAW, Articles 6 & 7.</ref> though these are not binding.<ref name=Sokhi-Bulley>{{cite journal |author=Bal Sokhi-Bulley |title=The Optional Protocol to CEDAW: First Steps |journal=Human Rights Law Review |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=157 |year=2006 |doi=10.1093/hrlr/ngi029}}</ref><br />
<br />
Articles 8–10 create an inquiry mechanism. Parties may permit the Committee to investigate, report on and make recommendations on "grave or systematic violations" of the Convention.<ref name=Art8>OP-CEDAW, Article 8.</ref> The Committee may invite the relevant party to respond and inform it of any measures taken as a result of such an inquiry, either directly or through the normal reporting process under the Convention.<ref name=Art9>OP-CEDAW, Article 9.</ref> Parties may opt out of this obligation on signature or ratification,<ref>OP-CEDAW, Article 10.</ref> but only Bangladesh, Belize and Colombia have done so.<ref name=parties/><br />
<br />
Article 11 requires parties to ensure that those complaining under the Optional Protocol are not subjected to ill-treatment or intimidation.<ref name=Art11>OP-CEDAW, Article 11.</ref><br />
<br />
Article 13 requires parties to inform their citizens about the Convention, the Optional Protocol, and the rulings of the Committee, so as to facilitate complaints.<ref name=Art13>OP-CEDAW, Article 13.</ref><br />
<br />
Articles 12 and 14 govern the procedure<ref name=Art14>OP-CEDAW, Article 14.</ref> and reporting<ref name=Art12>OP-CEDAW, Article 12.</ref> of the Committee in handling complaints.<br />
<br />
Articles 15–21 govern ratification, [[entry into force]], and amendment of the Optional Protocol.<br />
<br />
==Reservations and membership==<br />
<br />
A number of parties have made [[Reservation (law)|reservations]] and interpretative declarations to their application of the Protocol. [[Bangladesh]], [[Belize]] and [[Colombia]] have exercised their right under Article 10 of the Protocol not to recognise the jurisdiction of the Committee to investigate "grave or systematic violations" of the Convention.<ref name=parties/> Colombia declares that neither the Protocol nor the Committee can require it to decriminalise "offences against life or personal integrity".<ref name=parties/><br />
<br />
Not every state which is a party to CEDAW is a party to the Protocol, and several major states still remain outside the Protocol. The United States has not become a signatory because it has not yet ratified CEDAW.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aauw.org/About/international_corner/upload/CEDAWin-the-US.pdf |title=CEDAW in the United States |publisher=AAUW |accessdate=4 February 2010}}</ref> Japan does not participate in any of the individual communications mechanisms for human rights treaties, but is currently considering joining while observing how these procedures are functioning.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/AdvanceVersions/CEDAW-C-JPN-Q6-Add1.pdf |title=Responses to the list of issues and questions with regard to the consideration of the sixth periodic report: Japan (CEDAW/C/JPN/Q/6/Add.1) |date=14 April 2009 |publisher=Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women |accessdate=5 February 2010 |page=65}}</ref> China is currently "studying the problem of accession to<br />
the Optional Protocol".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N06/379/77/PDF/N0637977.pdf?OpenElement |title=Responses to the list of issues and questions for consideration of the combined fifth and sixth periodic report of China (CEDAW/C/CHN/Q/6/Add.1) |date=8 June 2006 |publisher=Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women |accessdate=4 February 2010 |page=28}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Individual complaints==<br />
<br />
The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has considered eleven complaints against seven countries since the Optional Protocol came into force,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/protocol/dec-views.htm |title=Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women: Optional Protocol: Decisions/Views |publisher=UN [[Division for the Advancement of Women]] |accessdate=15 July 2008}}</ref> on subjects such as [[domestic violence]], [[division of property]], [[forced sterilization]] and [[parental leave]]. Six complaints were rejected for lack of jurisdiction or because the complainants had not exhausted all domestic remedies. The other five decisions are summarised below:<br />
<br />
In 2005, in the case of ''A.T. v. Hungary'',<ref name="AT-v-Hungary">{{cite web |url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/docs/Case2_2003.pdf |title=Views of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women under article 7, paragraph 3, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: Communication No.: 2/2003, Ms. A. T. v. Hungary |date=26 January 2005 |accessdate=15 July 2008}}</ref> the Committee ruled that [[Hungary]] had violated numerous articles of the Convention by failing to adequately protect women against [[domestic violence]]. It recommended that the complainant be immediately protected from her abusive former partner, and that Hungary improve its handling of domestic violence cases and immediately adopt the Committee's previous recommendation for a law allowing protection and exclusion orders.<ref name="AT-v-Hungary"/> The recommendations were implemented by the time of Hungary's sixth periodic report to the Committee in 2006.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N06/402/22/PDF/N0640222.pdf?OpenElement |title=Sixth periodic report of Hungary under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women |pages=50 |date=15 June 2006 |accessdate=15 July 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2006, in the case of ''Dung Thi Thuy Nguyen v. The Netherlands'',<ref name="DTTN-v-Netherlands">{{cite web |url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/docs/Case3_2004.pdf |title=Views of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women under article 7, paragraph 3, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: Communication No. 3/2004: Dung Thi Thuy Nguyen v. The Netherlands |date=14 August 2006 |accessdate=16 July 2008}}</ref> the Committee expressed concerns about aspects of [[parental leave]] provisions in [[The Netherlands]]. It recommended the Dutch government collect further information on the number of women combining part-time salaried employment with self-employment, and review the law if this revealed that a significant number of women were disadvantaged.<ref name="DTTN-v-Netherlands"/><br />
<br />
In 2006, in the case of ''A.S. vs Hungary'',<ref name="AS-v-Hungary">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/protocol/decisions-views/Decision%204-2004%20-%20English.pdf |title=Views of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women under article 7, paragraph 3, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: Communication No.: 4/2004, Ms. A. S. v. Hungary |date=29 August 2006 |accessdate=15 July 2008}}</ref> the Committee ruled that the [[forced sterilization]] of a [[Romani people|Romani]] woman in Hungary violated the Convention. It recommended compensating the complainant for the breach of her rights, a full review of legislation surrounding [[informed consent]] in cases of sterilisation to ensure it complied with international human rights standards, and ongoing monitoring of Hungarian medical facilities to ensure that any changes were put into practice.<ref name="AS-v-Hungary"/><br />
<br />
In 2007, in the cases of ''Şahide Goekce (deceased) v. Austria''<ref name="SG-v-Austria">{{cite web |url=http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N07/495/43/PDF/N0749543.pdf?OpenElement |title=Views of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women under article 7, paragraph 3, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: Communication No. 5/2005: Şahide Goekce (deceased) v. Austria |date=6 August 2007 |accessdate=16 July 2008}}</ref> and ''Fatma Yildirim (deceased) v. Austria'',<ref name="FY-v-Austria">{{cite web |url=http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N07/495/37/PDF/N0749537.pdf?OpenElement |title=Views of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women under article 7, paragraph 3, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: Communication No. 6/2005: Fatma Yildirim (deceased) v. Austria |date=6 August 2007 |accessdate=15 July 2008}}</ref> the Committee ruled that the Austrian government was failing to protect women from domestic violence.<ref name="SG-v-Austria"/> It recommended strengthening the implementation and monitoring of existing domestic violence laws and greater training for police.<ref name="FY-v-Austria"/><br />
<br />
==Inquiries==<br />
<br />
The Committee has also conducted one inquiry into "grave or systematic violations" under Article 8, in relation to the [[Female homicides in Ciudad Juárez|systematic killing of women]] in the Mexican city of [[Ciudad Juárez|Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua]].<ref name="Mexico-8">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw32/CEDAW-C-2005-OP.8-MEXICO-E.pdf |title=Report on Mexico produced by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women under article 8 of the Optional Protocol to the Convention, and reply from the Government of Mexico |date=27 January 2005 |accessdate=15 July 2008}}</ref> This found "serious lapses in compliance"<ref name="Mexico-8-p42">''Report on Mexico'', p. 42.</ref> by the Mexican government and tolerance of severe and systematic abuses of women's rights.<ref name="Mexico-8-p42"/> The Committee recommended the involvement of federal as well as state authorities in the investigation of the murders,<ref name="Mexico-8-p43">''Report on Mexico'', p. 43.</ref> the punishment of negligent or complicit officials and those involved in the persecution of victims' relatives,<ref name="Mexico-8-p44">''Report on Mexico'', p. 44.</ref> and increased violence prevention plans.<ref name="Mexico-8-p46">''Report on Mexico'', p. 46.</ref><br />
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==Impact and criticism==<br />
The impact of an international treaty can be measured in two ways: by its acceptance, and by its implementation.<ref name=Lerner>{{cite book |title=The U.N. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination |last=Lérner |first=Natán |publisher=Sijthoff & Noordhoff International |page=165 |year=1980 |isbn=90-286-0160-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heyns |first1=Christof |last2=Viljoen |first2=Frans |title=The Impact of the United Nations Human Rights Treaties on the Domestic Level |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=23 |pages=483–535 |year=2001 |doi=10.1353/hrq.2001.0036}}</ref> On the first measure, the Optional Protocol has gained widespread international acceptance. Most major states are parties, and the protocol is the second most-accepted enforcement mechanism after the [[First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/spp/research/research-projects/nchr/#tabs-2 |title=Nominal Commitments to Human Rights: A Global Survey |publisher=University College London School of Public Policy |date=1 August 2009 |accessdate=3 February 1010}}</ref><ref>As of December 2009, OP-ICCPR had 113 parties to OP-CEDAW's 99.</ref><br />
<br />
On the second measure, the number of complaints dealt with by the committee has been limited. A 2008 assessment for the UK government found that the protocol had hardly been used by NGOs as originally expected, that the reasoning of the Committee was unpredictable, and that it had not affected policy-making.<ref name=murdoch>{{cite web |url=http://www.justice.gov.uk/publications/docs/un-optional-protocol-women.pdf |title=The Optional Protocol to the United Nations Convention for the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): The Experience of the United Kingdom |author=Jim Murdoch |page=1 |year=2008 |accessdate=17 December 2009}}</ref> It found that there had been some limited success in highlighting the importance of effective policies to protect women from domestic violence and forced sterilization, but that outside these areas, the protocol "has not led to a breakthrough in advancing women's rights."<ref name=murdoch/> It concludes that unless greater efforts are made to highlight [[awareness raising|awareness]] of the Optional Protocol and build trust in the rulings of the Committee, the complaints mechanism will remain under-utilized.<ref>Murdoch (2008), p. 27.</ref><br />
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The protocol has been criticised by legal academics such as Bal Sokhi-Bulley and feminists such as [[Catharine MacKinnon]] who view the complaints mechanism as difficult, lengthy,<ref name=Sokhi-Bulley/> and lacking [[transparency (behavior)|transparency]].<ref name=MacKinnon/> The voluntary nature of the protocol and the non-binding nature of its "recommendations" are seen as key limits on its effectiveness.<ref>Isa (2003), p. 320 – 321.</ref><ref>Sokhi-Bulley (2006), p. 157.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kwong-leung Tang |title=Internationalizing Women's Struggle against Discrimination: The UN Women's Convention and the Optional Protocol |journal=British Journal of Social Work |volume=34 |issue=8 |pages=1182 |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/bjsw/bch135}}</ref> Despite this, these critics tend to view the protocol as a valuable, if flawed, instrument for realizing [[women's rights]].<ref>Isa (2003), p. 319 – 320.</ref><ref>Sokhi-Bulley (2006), p. 158.</ref><ref>Tang (2004), p. 1185.</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]]<br />
* [[First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]]<br />
* [[Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities]]<br />
* [[Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
* {{cite web |url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/pdf/cedaw-one.pdf |title=Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (OP-CEDAW) |publisher=UN OHCHR |accessdate=16 December 2009}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
* [https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-8-b&chapter=4&clang=_en List of parties]<br />
* [http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/index.htm Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women]<br />
* [http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/jurisprudence.htm Decisions] made under the Optional Protocol<br />
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/opceafdw/opceafdw.html Introductory note by Jane Connors, procedural history note and audiovisual material] on the ''Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/historicarchives.html Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]<br />
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