Kazakhstan Encyclopedia - User contributions [en]

United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances

2016-12-20T09:12:40Z

The Rambling Man: date formats per MOS:DATEFORMAT by script

{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2016}}
{{Infobox Treaty
| name = United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
| long_name =
| image =IllicitTrafficinNarcoticDrugsandPsychotropicSubstances.svg
| image_width = 300px
| caption = Parties to the convention<br>{{legend|#00aa00|Parties}} {{legend|#ff9900|Territories of Parties where the treaty is not applied}} {{legend|#ff1111|Non-parties}}
| type =
| date_drafted =
| date_signed = December 20, 1988<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1988/ | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050518085810/http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1988/ | archivedate=May 18, 2005 | title=United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988}}</ref>
| location_signed = [[Vienna]]
| date_sealed =
| date_effective = November 11, 1990<ref name="unodc1">{{cite web| url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaty_adherence.html | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107135518/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaty_adherence.html | archivedate=November 7, 2007 | accessdate=December 19, 2011 | title=Monthly Status of Treaty Adherence | publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime}}</ref>
| condition_effective = 20 ratifications
| date_expiration =
| signatories =87
| parties = 189<ref name="ratifications">[https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=VI-19&chapter=6&lang=en Signatories and ratifications].</ref>
| depositor =[[Secretary-General of the United Nations]]
| language =
| languages =Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish
| website =
| wikisource =United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
}}
The '''United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances''' of 1988 is one of three major drug control treaties currently in force. It provides additional legal mechanisms for enforcing the 1961 [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] and the 1971 [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]]. The Convention entered into force on November 11, 1990. As of June 2014, there were 189 Parties to the Convention.<ref name="unodc1"/> These include 185 out of 193 [[United Nations]] member states (not [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Kiribati]], [[Palau]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[Somalia]], [[South Sudan]], or [[Tuvalu]]) and the [[Holy See]], the [[European Union]], the [[Cook Islands]] and [[Niue]].<ref name = "ratifications"/>

==Background==

The 1988 Convention was introduced following the political and sociological developments in the 1970s and 1980s. The growing demand for cannabis, cocaine, and heroin for recreational purposes, mostly in the developed world, triggered an increase of illicit production in geographical areas where cannabis, coca, and opium had been traditionally cultivated. With the rising size of the illicit drug trade, international drug trafficking became a multibillion-dollar business dominated by criminal groups, providing grounds for the creation of the 1988 Convention and the consequential escalation of the [[war on drugs]].<ref>[https://www.tni.org/en/publication/the-un-drug-control-conventions#5 A primer on the UN Drug Control Conventions. Transnational Institute, 2015.]</ref>

The [[s:United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances#PREAMBLE|Preamble]] notes that previous enforcement efforts have not stopped drug use, warning of "steadily increasing inroads into various social groups made by illicit traffic in [[narcotic drugs]] and [[psychotropic substances]]." It cautions that the drug trade and related activities "undermine the legitimate economies and threaten the stability, security and sovereignty of States." The sense of urgency is underscored by the image of innocent boys and girls being exploited:
:''[C]hildren are used in many parts of the world as an illicit drug consumers market and for purposes of illicit production, distribution and trade in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, which entails a danger of incalculable gravity.''

==Drug manufacture and distribution==
[[File:Precursor chemicals2.gif|frame|right|A cache of precursor chemicals near a [[South America]]n [[cocaine]] processing lab.]]
Much of the treaty is devoted to fighting [[organized crime]] by mandating cooperation in tracing and seizing drug-related assets. [[s:United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances#Article 5: CONFISCATION|Article 5]] of the Convention requires its parties to confiscate proceeds from drug offenses. It also requires parties to empower its courts or other competent authorities to order that bank, financial, or commercial records be made available or seized. The Convention further states that a party may not decline to act on this provision on the ground of [[bank secrecy]].

[[s:United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances#Article 6: EXTRADITION|Article 6]] of the Convention provides a legal basis for [[extradition]] in drug-related cases among countries having no other extradition treaties. In addition, the Convention requires the parties to provide mutual legal assistance to one another upon request, for purposes of searches, seizures, service of judicial documents, and so on.

In addition, [[s:United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances#Article 12: SUBSTANCES FREQUENTLY USED IN THE ILLICIT MANUFACTURE OF NARCOTIC DRUGS OR PSYCHOTROPIC SUBSTANCES|Article 12]] of the Convention establishes two categories of controlled illicit drug precursor substances, Table I and Table II. The [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] has power to decide whether to control a precursor substance, and which Table to place it in. The assessment of the [[International Narcotics Control Board]] is binding on the Commission, however, as to scientific matters. A two-thirds vote is required to add a substance to a Table.

Article 12 protects the interests of pharmaceutical and chemical companies by requiring the Board to take into account the "extent, importance and diversity of the licit use of the substance, and the possibility and ease of using alternate substances both for licit purposes and for the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances."

Control of amphetamine-type stimulant precursors has become a major UN priority.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/documents/ecosoc/res/1996/eres1996-29.htm |title=1996/29. Action to strengthen international cooperation to control precursors and their substitutes used in the illicit manufacture of controlled substances, in particular amphetamine-type stimulants, and to prevent their diversion |publisher=United Nations |date= |accessdate=December 19, 2011}}</ref>

==Drug possession==
[[File:Small time bust.gif|thumb|225px|right|The [[International Narcotics Control Board]] interprets the 1988 Convention as requiring Parties to criminalize simple drug possession.]]
[[s:United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances#Article 3: OFFENCES AND SANCTIONS|Article 3]] of the Convention may require nations to ban possession of drugs for personal use:
:''Subject to its constitutional principles and the basic concepts of its legal system, each Party shall adopt such measures as may be necessary to establish as a criminal offence under its domestic law, when committed intentionally, the possession, purchase or cultivation of narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances for personal consumption contrary to the provisions of the 1961 Convention, the 1961 Convention as amended or the 1971 Convention.''

Previous drug control treaties had targeted drug manufacturers and traffickers, rather than users. In their 2003 article, "The Mechanics and Dynamics of the UN System for International Drug Control," David Bewley-Taylor and [[Cindy Fazey]] explain that "[t]he 1988 Convention was an attempt to reach a political balance between consumer and producer countries. Consequently, it was not only the duty of producing countries (e.g. the developing countries of Asia and South America) to suppress illicit supply, but also the duty of consumer countries (e.g. the industrialized countries of Europe and North America) to suppress the demand for drugs."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forward-thinking-on-drugs.org/review1.html |title=The Mechanics and Dynamics of the UN System for International Drug Control |publisher=Forward Thinking on Drugs |date= |accessdate=January 30, 2016}}</ref>

However, it is unclear whether this provision actually does mandate prohibition of drug possession for personal use, due to the caveat that such possession need only be prohibited if it is "contrary to the provisions of the 1961 Convention, the 1961 Convention as amended or the 1971 Convention." The American [[National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse]] found that the provisions of the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs against possession apply only to possession related to illicit trafficking, while the Canadian [[Le Dain Commission of Inquiry into the Non-Medical Use of Drugs]] found otherwise.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfdp.ca/canrep/appendix_a.htm |title=Appendix A – Cannabis Report |publisher=Canadian Foundation for Drug Policy |date= |accessdate=December 19, 2011}}</ref>

==Constitutional issues==
Several of the Convention's provisions are prefaced with the words, "Subject to its constitutional principles and the basic concepts of its legal system, each Party shall ..." According to Fazey, "This has been used by the USA not to implement part of article 3 of the 1988 Convention, which prevents inciting others to use narcotic or psychotropic drugs, on the basis that this would be in contravention of their constitutional amendment guaranteeing freedom of speech."<ref name="fuoriluogo2003">{{cite news|url=http://www.fuoriluogo.it/arretrati/2003/apr_17_en.htm |title=The UN Drug Policies and the Prospect for Change |first=Cindy |last=Fazey |authorlink=Cindy Fazey |newspaper=Fuoriluogo |publisher=[[il manifesto]] |date=April 2003 |accessdate=December 19, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423160616/http://www.fuoriluogo.it/arretrati/2003/apr_17_en.htm |archivedate=April 23, 2015 }}</ref> Similarly, if a national prohibition on drug possession violated a nation's constitution, those provisions would not be binding on that country.

==Proposed repeal==
In 2003, a [[European Parliament]] committee recommended repealing the 1988 Convention, finding that:
:''[D]espite massive deployment of police and other resources to implement the UN Conventions, production and consumption of, and trafficking in, prohibited substances have increased exponentially over the past 30 years, representing what can only be described as a failure, which the police and judicial authorities also recognise as such ... [T]he policy of prohibiting drugs, based on the UN Conventions of 1961, 1971 and 1988, is the true cause of the increasing damage that the production of, trafficking in, and sale and use of illegal substances are inflicting on whole sectors of society, on the economy and on public institutions, eroding the health, freedom and life of individuals.''<ref name="B5-0541/2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+MOTION+B5-2002-0541+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN |title=PROPOSAL FOR A RECOMMENDATION on the reform of the Conventions on drugs – B5-0541/2002 |publisher=European Parliament |date=December 23, 2002 |accessdate=December 19, 2011}}</ref>

The road to repeal would be difficult. Individual nations could withdraw from the treaty under the provisions of [[s:United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances#Article 30: DENUNCIATION|Article 30]]. However, as former UN drug official Cindy Fazey notes, the Convention has no termination clause, and therefore would remain in effect even if only one signatory remained.<ref name="fuoriluogo2003"/> The [[Transnational Radical Party]] report noted that denunciation is the only route to changing the control regime established by the treaty:
:''As regards the 1988 Convention, written with the main objective of strengthening all aspects of prohibition (also at the level of consumption, establishing the reversal of the burden of proof for persons suspected of carrying forbidden substances), it was deemed not amendable, therefore, the only possible way to go about it would be its denunciation by a substantial number of contracting Parties.''<ref name="NRPTT">{{cite web|url=http://servizi.radicalparty.org/documents/index.php?func=detail&par=213 |title=Concept Paper For Campaign by the Transnational Radical Party and the International Antiprohibitionist League to Reform the UN Conventions on Drugs | author1=Cappato, Marco | author2=Perduca, Marco |publisher=[[Transnational Radical Party]] |date=June 8, 1998 |accessdate=December 19, 2011}}</ref>

== List of controlled drug precursors ==

Source: [http://www.incb.org/incb/en/precursors/Red_Forms/red-list.html INCB Red List] (14th Edition, January 2015)

The list of 23 substances is identical to list of [[European law on drug precursors|EU-controlled drug precursors]], except for the different categorization and inclusion of stereoisomers in EU Category 1.

See also the article: [[drug precursors]]

=== Table I ===
* [[acetic anhydride]]
* [[N-acetylanthranilic acid]]
* [[ephedrine]]
* [[ergometrine]]
* [[ergotamine]]
* [[isosafrole]]
* [[lysergic acid]]
* [[3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone]]
* [[norephedrine]]
* [[phenylacetic acid]]
* [[1-phenyl-2-propanone]]
* [[alpha -Phenylacetoacetonitrile]] (APAAN)
* [[piperonal]]
* [[potassium permanganate]]
* [[pseudoephedrine]]
* [[safrole]]

The salts of the substances listed in this Table whenever the existence of such salts is possible.

=== Table II ===
* [[acetone]]
* [[anthranilic acid]]
* [[diethyl ether]]
* [[hydrochloric acid]] ([[hydrogen chloride]])
* [[methyl ethyl ketone]]
* [[piperidine]]
* [[sulphuric acid]]
* [[toluene]]

The salts of the substances listed in this Table whenever the existence of such salts is possible.

The salts of [[hydrochloric acid]] and [[sulphuric acid]] are specifically excluded from Table II.

=== See also ===
* [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs#List of controlled narcotic drugs|List of UN-controlled narcotic drugs]]
* [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances#List of controlled psychotropic substances|List of UN-controlled psychotropic substances]]
* [[European law on drug precursors|List of EU-controlled drug precursors]]
* [[DEA list of chemicals|List of US-controlled drug precursors]]

==See also==
* [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961]]
* [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Wikisourcepar|United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances}}
* [https://www.tni.org/en/publication/the-un-drug-control-conventions A Primer on the UN Drug Control Conventions] Transnational Institute, 2015.
* Bewley-Taylor, David R. and Fazey, Cindy S. J.: The Mechanics and Dynamics of the UN System for International Drug Control, March 14, 2003.
* {{cite book|last=McAllister|first=William B.|title=Drug diplomacy in the twentieth century: an international history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fz1ZekzMVSQC|accessdate=December 19, 2011|year=2000|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-17990-4}}

{{Drug use}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs Convention}}
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Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 110

2016-11-15T13:16:47Z

The Rambling Man: no fair use rationale for inclusion of this image in this specific article

{{Infobox launch pad
| name = Site 110
| site =[[Baikonur Cosmodrome]]
| location = {{coord|45.9647|N|63.3049|E}}
| operator =
| inclination =
| tlaunches = 5
| pads = 2
| paddetails = {{Infobox launch pad/pad
| designation = Site 110/37
| status = Inactive
| launches = 3
| first = 26 June 1971
| last = 15 November 1988
| rockets = [[N1 (rocket)|N1]]<br/>[[Energia]] }} {{Infobox launch pad/pad
| designation = Site 110/38
| status = Inactive (destroyed)
| launches = 2
| first = 21 February 1969
| last = 3 July 1969
| rockets = [[N1 (rocket)|N1]]<br/>[[Energia]] (unused) }}
}}
'''Site 110''' at the [[Baikonur Cosmodrome]] is a launch facility which was used by the [[N1 (rocket)|N1]] rocket during the late 1960s and early 1970s, and by the [[Energia]] rocket during the 1980s.

==Site==
Site 110 consists of a two launch pads: The right (or east) pad, called "110/38" or "110R", was completed first. It was followed by the left (or west) pad, called "110/37" or "110L". The complex was built in the 1960s as part of the [[Soviet manned lunar programs|Soviet manned lunar programme]], for use by the [[N1 (rocket)|N1]] rocket.

A total of five launches were made from the complex: Four N1 launches as well as one Energia launch carrying a ''[[Buran program|Buran]]'' [[spaceplane]]. Following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] the Energia and [[Buran program]]mes were cancelled, and the complex was abandoned.

==Usage==
===N1===
Site 110 was intended as the launch site for manned lunar landing missions using the [[Soyuz 7K-L3]] spacecraft and the [[LK (spacecraft)|LK]] lander. The N1 made four flights, all of which were launched from Site 110, and all of which failed before the first stage had completed its burn.

The first launch from the complex occurred from Site 110/38 on 21 February 1969, and was followed by another launch from the same pad on 3 July 1969.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/sites/baic110r.htm|title=Baikonur LC110R|first=Mark|last=Wade|work=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=5 July 2011}}</ref> During the second launch the number 8 engine exploded a quarter of a second after liftoff, starting a fire at the base of the rocket. The rocket cleared the tower but by 12 seconds into the flight the fire had caused all but one of the remaining engines to fail, and the rocket fell back onto the launch pad. The resulting explosion destroyed the right pad, shattered windows six kilometres from the pad, and could be seen {{convert|35|km}} away in [[Baikonur|Leninsk]]. It took over eighteen months to rebuild the pad.<ref name=5L>{{cite web|last=Wade|first=Mark|title=1969.07.03 - N1 5L launch|url=http://www.astronautix.com/details/n15h5170.htm|work=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=5 July 2011}}</ref>

N1 launches resumed on 26 June 1971, with the first from the left pad. Following its failure, and the failure of another launch on 23 November 1972, the development N1 was abandoned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/sites/baic110l.htm|title=Baikonur LC110L|first=Mark|last=Wade|work=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=5 July 2011}}</ref>

===Energia===
Both N1 pads at Site 110 were then rebuilt for launching Energia rockets<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/sites/baic110l.htm|title=Baikonur LC110L|first=Mark|last=Wade|work=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=5 July 2011}}</ref> and adapted for manned flights. The two rotating service towers on both pads were reduced in height by {{convert|60|m|ft|abbr=off}} to match the shorter stack height of the Energia rocket.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shayler|first1=David J.|title=Space rescue ensuring the safety of manned spaceflight|date=2009|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin|isbn=0387739963|page=87|edition=Online-Ausg.|url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=wEHL8MIhRa8C&pg=PA87#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=1 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="RSW">{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/baikonur_energia_110.html|title=Baikonur: Energia-Buran Facilities: Site 110|first=Anatoly|last=Zak|work=RussianSpaceWeb|accessdate=5 July 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110703141245/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/baikonur_energia_110.html| archivedate= 3 July 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> A third pad was constructed from the ground up at [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 250|Site 250]] for testing and unmanned launches. Energia rockets only flew twice. The first flight (''Energia-[[Polyus (spacecraft)|Polyus]]'') on 15 May 1987 was made from Site 250, and the second flight (''Energia-[[Buran (spacecraft)|Buran]]'') from Site 110/37.

The only Energia launch from Site 110 occurred at 03:00 UTC on 15 November 1988, carrying the first [[Buran program|''Buran'']] shuttle on an unmanned test flight.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wade |first=Mark |title=Energia |url=http://www.astronautix.com/fam/energia.htm |work=Encyclopedia Astronautica |accessdate=5 July 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011011357/http://astronautix.com/fam/energia.htm |archivedate=11 October 2011 |df= }}</ref>

===Later use===
Today both launch pads at Site 110 are still standing, but have fallen into disrepair. Site 110 was considered as a location for the [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 250#Angara|Bayterek Launch Complex]], which is to be built at Baikonur for [[Angara (rocket family)|Angara]] launches, however Baikonur's other Energia launch complex, Site 250, was chosen instead. [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 200|Site 200/40]], a [[Proton (rocket)|Proton]] launch complex, had also been under consideration.<ref name="RSW250">{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/baikonur_energia_250.html |title=Baikonur: Energia-Buran Facilities: Site 250 |first=Anatoly |last=Zak |work=RussianSpaceWeb |accessdate=5 July 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903023615/http://www.russianspaceweb.com:80/baikonur_energia_250.html |archivedate=3 September 2011 |df= }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Baikonur Cosmodrome launch sites}}

{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}

[[Category:Baikonur Cosmodrome]]