Kazakhstan Encyclopedia - User contributions [en]

White-tailed eagle

2017-04-20T13:54:55Z

Rjwilmsi: /* Footnotes */Journal cites:, added 2 PMIDs, added 1 PMC using AWB (12151)

{{Taxobox
| name = White-tailed eagle
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = {{sfn|IUCN Red List|2013}}
| image = Haliaeetus albicilla -captive-8a.jpg
| image_caption = In captivity
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Accipitriformes]]
| familia = [[Accipitridae]]
| genus = ''[[Sea eagle|Haliaeetus]]''
| species = '''''H. albicilla'''''
| binomial = ''Haliaeetus albicilla''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)
| range_map = Haliaeetus albicilla dis.PNG
| range_map_caption = Range of ''H. albicilla'' {{leftlegend|#0DFF00|Nesting range|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#0062FF|Wintering range|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#047200|Year-round range|outline=gray}}
| synonyms =
''Falco albicilla'' {{Taxobox authority | author = Linnaeus | date = 1758 }} 
''Haliaeetus albicilla albicilla'' 
''Haliaeetus albicilla groenlandicus''
}}

'''White-tailed eagle''' (''Haliaeetus albicilla'') are also known as '''eagle of the rain''', '''sea grey eagle''', '''erne''', '''gray eagle''', and '''white-tailed sea-eagle''' — is a large [[bird of prey]] in the family [[Accipitridae]] which includes other raptors such as [[hawk]]s, [[kite (bird)|kite]]s, and [[harrier (bird)|harrier]]s. It is considered a close cousin of the [[bald eagle]] and occupies the same [[ecological niche]], but in [[Eurasia]].

==Taxonomy==
The first [[Species description|formal description]] of the white-tailed eagle was by the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1758 in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' under the [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Falco albicilla''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=C. | authorlink=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title= Systema Naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, Volume 1| edition=10th | page=89 | publisher=Holmiae:Laurentii Salvii | language=Latin | url=http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/726996 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Cottrell | editor2-first=G. William | year=1979 | title=Check-list of Birds of the World. Volume 1 | edition=2nd | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts | page=301 | url=http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16108941 }}</ref> The [[genus]] ''[[Haliaeetus]]'' was introduced in 1809 by the French naturalist [[Marie Jules César Savigny]] in the ''[[Description de l'Égypte]]''.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Savigny | first=Marie Jules César | author-link=Marie Jules César Savigny | year=1809 | title=Description de l'Égypte: Histoire naturelle Volume 1 | publisher=Imprimerie impériale | place=Paris | language=French | pages=[http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15989457 68], [http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15989474 85]}}</ref> The name ''Haliaeetus'' is [[New Latin]] for "sea-eagle", from [[Ancient Greek]] ''hali-'', "sea-" and ''aetos'', "eagle". The specific ''albicilla'', "white-tailed", is from New Latin ''albi-'', "white" and ''cilla'', "tail".<ref name=Jobling>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages=38, 185}}</ref>

== Description ==
[[File:Haliaeetus albicilla (Svolvær, 2012).jpg|left|thumb|300px|Adult, wild eagle from [[Svolvær]], [[Norway]] showing characteristic long, broad, fingered wings, heavy bill and short wedge-shaped tail]]
The white-tailed eagle is a very large bird. It measures {{convert|66|–|94|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length with a {{convert|1.78|–|2.45|m|ft|abbr=on}} wingspan. The wingspan, with a midpoint of {{convert|2.18|m|ft|abbr=on}}, is on average the largest of any eagle.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/><ref name=NatlGeog/> The [[Steller's sea eagle]], larger in both weight and total length, is the closest rival for median wingspan amongst living eagles.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> The bald eagle is roughly the same size as the white-tailed eagle, although has a shorter average wingspan and usually longer total length, due to a longer tail.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Females, typically weighing {{convert|4|–|6.9|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, are slightly larger than males, which weigh {{convert|3.1|-|5.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> The record weight for the species was {{convert|7.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} for a specimen from [[Scotland]], while a more recent huge female from [[Greenland]] reportedly spanned {{convert|2.53|m|ft|abbr=on}} across the wings.<ref name=Wood/><ref name=ravingravens/> Among standard measurements, the [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] is {{convert|55.2|-|71.7|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the [[tail]] is {{convert|25|-|33|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] is {{convert|9.2|-|10.1|cm|in|abbr=on}} and the [[Culmen (bird)|exposed culmen]] is {{convert|6|-|6.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/><ref name=indianbiodiversity/> Size variation is generally a [[Cline (biology)|clinal]] trend: measurements of eagles from Greenland are in general larger than in other populations of the species, while those from the (now discontinuous) population in the [[Middle East]], at the southern extreme of this species distribution, are the smallest in the species.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/><ref name=Brown1968/> The white-tailed eagle is sometimes considered the fourth largest eagle in the world {{sfn|The Nature of Scotland|p=49}} and is on average the fourth heaviest eagle in the world.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/><ref name=HBW/>

This species has broad "barn door" wings, a large head and a large thick beak. The adult is mainly grayish-brown except for the slightly paler head and neck, blackish flight feathers, and distinctive white tail. All bare parts are yellow in color, including both the [[Beak|bill]] and the legs. In juvenile birds, tail and bill are darker, the tail becoming white with a dark terminal band in sub-adults.{{sfn|Snow|Perrins|1998|p=}}{{page needed|date=May 2011}} The combination of mousy-brown coloration, broad, evenly held wings, white tail, strong yellow bill and overall large size render the white-tailed eagle essentially unmistakable in its native range.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>

Second year birds have paler bellies and third year birds are darker. It has four or five body moults before reaching adult plumage. Only a proportion of the flight feathers are moulted each year. Moults more or less continuously, although it may pause in winter if food is in short supply.<ref>RSPB Handbook of British Birds (2014). UK ISBN 978-1-4729-0647-2.</ref>

Some individuals have been found to live over 25 years,<ref name=mtv3/> 21 years being the average.{{sfn|The Nature of Scotland|p=49}}

== Distribution and systematics ==
[[File:White Tailed Eagle AdF.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Closeup of white-tailed eagle calling]]
[[File:Haliaeetus albicilla -Littleisland, Norway -adult-8a.jpg|thumb|An adult eagle at the [[Littleisland lighthouse]] in Norway]]
[[File:Haliaeetus albicilla -Littleisland, Norway -juvenile-8a (1).jpg|thumb|A young eagle above its nest at [[Littleisland lighthouse]]]]
[[File:Haliaeetus albicilla -Loch Portree, Isle of Skye, Scotland -flying-8.jpg|thumb|Adult in flight in [[Isle of Skye]], Scotland]]

This large [[eagle]] breeds in northern [[Europe]] and northern [[Asia]], and winters further south. It is a rare winter visitor to [[India]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide|last=Rasmussen & Anderton|first=P.C. & J.C.|publisher=Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions,|year=2005|isbn=|location=Washington, D.C. and Barcelona.|pages=87}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khan|first=Asif N.|date=2015-08-01|title=Sighting of a Juvenile White-Tailed Eagle at Jor Beed Carcass Dump, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India|url=http://www.bnhsjournal.org/index.php/bnhs/article/view/104934|journal=Journal of Bombay Natural History Society (JBNHS)|language=en|volume=112|issue=2|pages=92–93|doi=10.17087/jbnhs/2015/v112i2/104934|issn=0006-6982}}</ref> The largest population in Europe is found along the coast of [[Norway]]. The population in 2008 stood at 9,000–11,000 pairs.{{sfn|The Nature of Scotland|p=49}} They are mostly resident, only the northernmost birds such as the eastern [[Scandinavia]]n and [[Siberia]]n population [[bird migration|migrating]] south in winter. Birds from eastern [[Russia]] rarely migrate into [[Alaska]].

Small disjunct resident populations occur in southwesternmost [[Greenland]] and western [[Iceland]]. The former has been proposed as a distinct [[subspecies]], ''groenlandicus'', based on their very large size and body proportions. However, the species is now considered [[monotype (biology)|monotypic]] and the size variation is [[cline (biology)|clinal]] according to [[Bergmann's rule]].{{sfn|del Hoyo|Elliott|Sargatal|1994|p=}}{{page needed|date=May 2011}} A recent genetic study of [[mitochondrial DNA]]{{sfn|Hailer|Helander|Folkestad|Ganusevich|2007|p=}} is consistent with this idea. Greenlandic white-tailed eagles form, on [[evolution]]ary time scales, a relatively recently founded population that has not yet accumulated many unique genetic characteristics. However, the population appears to be demographically isolated and deserves special protection.

The white-tailed eagle forms a [[cryptic species complex|species pair]] with the [[bald eagle]]. These diverged from other sea eagles at the beginning of the early [[Miocene]] (c. 10 [[mya (unit)|mya]]) at the latest, possibly (if the most ancient fossil record is correctly assigned to this genus) as early as the early or middle [[Oligocene]], about 28 [[mya (unit)|mya]].{{sfn|Wink|Heidrich|Fentzloff|1996}}

As in other sea-eagle species pairs, this one consists of a white-headed (the bald eagle) and a tan-headed species. They probably diverged in the North [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]], spreading westwards into Eurasia and eastwards into [[North America]]. Like the third large northern species, [[Steller's sea eagle]], adults have yellow feet, beaks and eyes.

Currently, eagles only occur in the [[Hawaiian Islands]] as vagrants, but Quaternary bones of ''[[Haliaeetus]]'' have been found on three of the major islands. An ancient DNA study published in 2015 characterized the rapidly evolving mitochondrial control region of one of these specimens.<ref name=Hailer2015/> [[DNA]] from a ∼3500-year-old sea eagle skeleton found in a lava cave on [[Maui]] was sequenced. Phylogenetic analyses suggested that the Hawaiian eagle represents a distinct (>3% divergent) mtDNA lineage that is most closely related to extant white-tailed eagles. Based on fossil calibration, the Hawaiian mtDNA lineage probably diverged around the Middle Pleistocene. Thus, although not clearly differentiated in morphology from its relatives, the Hawaiian eagle likely represented an isolated, resident population in the Hawaiian archipelago for more than 100,000 years, where it was the largest terrestrial predator. The reasons for its extinction are unknown.

== Diet ==
[[File:Haliaeetus albicilla, Mull 2.jpg|thumb|About to grasp a fish near the [[Isle of Mull]], Scotland]]
[[File:NuukSeaEagle.ogv|thumb|Greenland eagle]]
The white-tailed eagle's diet is varied, opportunistic and seasonal. Prey specimens can often include [[fish]], [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s. Many birds live largely as scavengers, regularly pirating food from [[otter]]s and other birds including [[cormorant]]s, [[gull]]s, [[osprey]]s and various other [[Bird of prey|raptors]].<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Carrion is often the primary food source during lean winter months, with fish and ungulates preferred but everything from [[cetacean]]s to [[livestock]] to even [[human]]s being eaten after death.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/><ref name=rspb/> Among the scavengers in their range, eagles are often dominant over all but perhaps the largest carnivorous mammals (i.e. [[gray wolf|gray wolves]], etc.)<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> However, this eagle can be a powerful hunter as well. In [[Scotland]], the diet of this species differs significantly from that of sympatric [[golden eagle]]s, as is also the case in [[Norway]].<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> The daily food requirement for a white-tailed eagle is in range of {{convert|500|-|600|g|lb|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Cramp|1980|p=}}{{page needed|date=May 2011}} Although generally a less active hunter than the golden eagle, competition over food can go either way depending on the individual eagle. They can exist at higher population densities and typically outnumber golden eagles because of their longer gut and more efficient digestive system, being able to live better with less food.{{sfn|Halley|1998|p=}}

Virtually any fish found near the surface is potential prey for the white-tailed eagle.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Commercial fisheries and carp ponds are readily exploited by the eagles when available.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Although, given the opportunity, they occasionally kill and harass some land birds, white-tailed eagles usually target water-based birds as prey.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> In the Baltic, the diet of this species consists mainly of sea birds (from the [[little tern]] to the [[great skua]]) and [[Esox|pike]]. Recently they are reported to have attacked and eaten [[great cormorant]]s and in some cases destroyed whole colonies.<ref name=hs.fi/> In the [[Estonia]]n island of [[Hiiumaa]], home to at least 25 pairs of sea eagles, as many as 26 individuals have been observed simultaneously culling a single cormorant colony.<ref name=Hiiumaa/> In the UK, [[northern fulmar|fulmar]] are noted as a common prey species and as such may contribute to locally high levels of DDT and PCB chemicals in nesting eagles.<ref name= rspb/> Additionally, [[loon]]s, [[grebe]]s, [[duck]]s, [[coot]]s, [[auk]]s, [[gull]]s, [[geese]] and even [[swan]]s have been preyed upon.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Adults, nestlings and eggs of other birds are all regularly consumed. When preying upon non-nesting birds, white-tailed eagles often fly towards a waterbird repeatedly, forcing it to dive again and again until the bird is exhausted and more easily caught.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Very large prey such as swans may be dragged along the surface of the water to the shore to be consumed.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Live mammals consumed have ranged in size from [[vole]]s to [[Sheep|lambs]] and [[deer]] calves, the latter likely around the same size as the record-sized deer carried by bald eagles in North America.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>

== Breeding ==

[[File:White-tailed Eagle with 2 Buzzards.jpg|thumb|left|A juvenile (right) being mobbed by a pair of [[buzzard]]s over the [[Canna, Scotland|Isle of Canna]]]]

White-tailed eagles are sexually mature at four to five years of age. They pair for life, though if one dies replacement can occur quickly. A bond is formed when a permanent home range is chosen. They have a characteristic aerial courtship display which culminates in the pair locking talons mid-air and whirling earthwards in series of spectacular cartwheels. White-tailed eagles are much more vocal than golden eagles, particularly during the breeding season and especially the male when near the [[Bird nest|eyrie]]. Calls can sometimes take the form of a duet between the pair.

The nest is a huge edifice of sticks in a [[tree]] or on a coastal [[cliff]]. Being faithful to their territories, once they breed, nests are often reused, sometimes for decades by successive generations of birds; one nest in Iceland has been in use for over 150 years.{{sfn|Snow|Perrins|1998|p=}}{{page needed|date=May 2011}} In [[Scandinavia]], trees have been known to collapse under the weight of enormous, long-established nests.

The territory of the white-tailed eagle ranges between {{convert|30|and|70|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, normally in sheltered coastal locations. Sometimes they are found inland by lakes and along rivers. Territory of white-tailed eagles can overlap with those of the golden eagle but competition between the two species is limited. Golden eagles prefer mountains and moorland, while the white-tailed eagle prefers the coast and the sea. In adulthood, the white-tailed eagle has no natural predators and is thus considered an [[apex predator]].
[[File:Haliaeetus albicilla MWNH 0837.JPG|left|thumb|Egg, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden]]]]

Mated pairs produce one to three [[egg (biology)|eggs]] per year, laid two to five days apart in March or April and incubated for 38 days by both parents. Once hatched, chicks are quite tolerant of one another, although the first hatched is often larger and dominates at feeding times. The female does most of the brooding and direct feeding, with the male taking over now and then. Young are able to feed themselves from five to six weeks and they fledge at eleven to twelve weeks, remaining in the vicinity of the nest, dependent on their parents for a further six to ten weeks. The sex of nestlings can be identified using field methods, or using [[DNA]].{{sfn|Helander|Hailer|Vilà|2007|p=}}

Surplus chicks are sometimes removed from nests to use in [[reintroduction]] programs in areas where the species has died out. If left in the nest, they often die sooner or later, as with most large eagles. In such programs the birds are raised in boxes on platforms in the tree canopy and fed in such a way that they cannot see the human supplying their food, until they are old enough to fly and thus find their own food.

== Near-extinction and recovery in Europe ==

White-tailed eagles, being [[apex predator]]s, tend to experience [[bioaccumulation]] from environmental [[pollution|pollutants]] present in their prey; they also suffer intensive persecution by [[shepherd]]s and [[gamekeeper]]s who consider them (usually wrongly{{sfn|Halley|1998|p=}}) a threat to their [[livestock]] and [[game (food)|gamebird]]s. During the period 1800-1970, white-tailed eagles in most of Europe underwent dramatic declines and became extinct in many regions of western, central and southern Europe. [[File:White tailed Eagle from Bridgwater Bay.jpg|thumb|A sea eagle from Bridgwater Bay]] A white tailed eagle was shot in the winter of 1857 at Stolford in [[Bridgwater Bay]] and subsequently preserved for display. It may be seen at the Somerset Heritage Centre (TA2 6SF). It was presented to the [http://museumofsomerset.org.uk/ county museum] by Miss Bailey, the executrix of the owner's will, in 1881.<ref>{{cite journal|title = The Somerset Natural History and Archaeological Society|journal = The Proceedings|date = 1881|volume = XXV1|issue = |page = Page 86}}</ref>
[[File:White-tailed eagle battle over Littleisland.jpg|thumb|upright|A duel between white-tailed eagles close to their nest by [[Littleisland lighthouse]], [[Lofoten]], [[Norway]]]]
[[File:White-tailed Eagle Head detail.jpg|thumb| Head detail of grown adult, [[Plzeň Zoo]], [[Czech Republic]]]]

While Norway, Germany, Poland and Iceland harboured the largest surviving populations, pockets of reproducing pairs remained in several other countries.{{sfn|Hailer|Helander|Folkestad|Ganusevich|2006|p=}} Intense conservation actions throughout much of the remaining European distribution range (legal protection to decrease hunting, protection of breeding sites, and winter feeding) led to recovery of many local populations. Since the 1980s, the European white-tailed eagle population has recovered steadily and is spreading back westward. It has today recolonised several traditional breeding areas in Europe. This ongoing recovery is assisted in [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] by reintroduction schemes.{{sfn|Snow|Perrins|1998|p=}}{{page needed|date=May 2011}}{{sfn|Cramp|1980|p=}}{{page needed|date=May 2011}}

Some threats still remain, notably illegal persecution by gamebird shooting and egg thieves in Scotland.<ref name=rspb2/> A new threat from [[wind turbine]]s is emerging with significant mortality (considerably in excess of the area's population productivity) occurring at the Smøla Windfarm in Norway.<ref name=BirdLife/><ref name=fatbirder/>

White-tailed eagles were successfully reintroduced to the [[Rùm|Isle of Rum]], in the [[Small Isles]] archipelago in [[Scotland]], in 1975 and now breeds throughout the [[Outer Hebrides|Western Isles]] and the mainland coast of [[Wester Ross]]. It has many Gaelic names, including ''iolar sùil na grèine'' or 'eagle of the sun's eye.'{{sfn|The Nature of Scotland|p=49}} In August 2008, fifteen chicks raised in Norway were released at a secret location in [[Fife]], in expectation of reintroducing the species to the east coast of Scotland as well.<ref name=bbc/> The white-tailed eagle is still a rare breeder in Britain following its extinction and reintroduction, with 36 pairs in 2006 and 40 in 2008.{{sfn|The Nature of Scotland|p=49}}{{sfn|Snow|Perrins|1998|p=}}{{page needed|date=May 2011}}<ref name=rspb2/>

On 22 May 2006, it was announced that a pair of white-tailed eagles breeding in the [[Oostvaardersplassen]] nature reserve in the [[Netherlands]] had arrived on their own, not as a reintroduction. This was the first time the bird has bred in the Netherlands in living memory. In 2007, 2008 and 2009 the eagles returned to their nest.<ref name=webcam/> In 2010, it turned out that the white-tailed eagle was also breeding in the Zwarte Meer nature district and in the Lauwersmeer area.<ref name=Janssen/> There is also a confirmed case of breeding white-tailed eagles in the [[De Biesbosch|Biesbosch]].

The white-tailed eagle is being reintroduced to [[Ireland]], where its [[Irish language|Irish]] name of Iolar Mara (sea eagle) reflects its historic association with the island's long coast. The program was begun in the summer of 2007. Fifteen to twenty young eagles from [[Norway]] are being released each spring into the [[Killarney National Park]] in the south-west of Ireland. This comprehensive project will last a number of years, with many more eagles being released. The species has a rich history on the island but became extinct in Ireland in the 1900s due to persecution from landowners.<ref name=rte/> The last pair bred on the coast of Mayo in 1912.<ref name=birdwatchireland/>

In 2007, a hundred local sheep farmers gathered at Kerry airport to protest the eagles' arrival. Irish Farming Association Hill Committee chairman Mr O'Leary said he had no doubt the eagles would take lambs.<ref name=Drimnagh/> Since their reintroduction seven eagles have been confirmed poisoned in County Kerry, two suspected of having been poisoned, and one shot. A 13th eagle released in Kerry was shot in [[Northern Ireland]]. Twenty more eagles were due for release in 2010. However, Dr Allan Mee, in charge of the sea eagle project, stated "the continuing loss of eagles to poisoning had cast a shadow over the future of the ambitious programme."<ref name=irishtimes/> The first white-tailed eagle breeding pair since 1912 nested 100 years later on [[Lough Derg (Shannon)|Lough Derg]] (Loch Deirgeirt), marking a great success for the Irish reintroduction programme.<ref name=irishtimes2/> In early May 2013, the first eaglets were born in Ireland since the re-introduction programme began; one in the Killarney National Park and two in County Clare.<ref name=rte2/> In Spring 2015, five nests hatched chicks in 4 counties in Ireland - Clare, Cork, Galway and Kerry.<ref name=irishtimes3/>

Studies of [[Microsatellite (genetics)|microsatellite]] and [[mitochondrial DNA]] in white-tailed eagles from north-central Europe have shown that the recovering European population has retained appreciable amounts of [[genetic diversity]], implying low risk of [[inbreeding depression]] (a serious concern in species with low [[population density]]). Therefore, recovery of this formerly endangered species is a true success story for nature conservation. The story also shows how local protection of a species can be successful and important for preserving the species' evolutionary potential.{{sfn|Hailer|Helander|Folkestad|Ganusevich|2006|p=}}{{sfn|Hailer|2006|p=}}{{sfn|Hailer|Gautschi|Helander|2005|p=}}
[[File:Aquila9999.JPG|thumb|left|White-tailed eagle in [[Pombia Safari Park]], [[Italy]]]]

== Heraldry ==
It is believed to be the White eagle shown in the [[Coat of arms of Poland|Polish coat of arms]] and in the [[Coat of arms of Serbia|Serbian coat of arms]].<ref name=birds.poland.pl/> The sea eagle is often blazoned grasping a fish (usually a [[Esox|pike]]) in its talons, distinguishing it from an ordinary eagle.

== Prehistory ==
On [[Orkney]], ([[Scotland]]), sea eagle bones have been found in 6000-year-old burial mounds, among them the [[Tomb of the Eagles]], suggesting that the birds were revered by the prehistoric people there, a belief strengthened by the Pictish stone carvings of sea eagles from Orkney.{{sfn|The Nature of Scotland|p=49}}

Cut marks have been found in white-tailed eagle talons in [[Krapina]], suggesting [[Neanderthal]]s' use of [[jewellery]].<ref name=PLOS/>

== Folklore ==
In the [[Shetland Isles]] (Scotland), fishermen believed that as soon as a sea eagle appeared fish would rise to the surface, belly up; this led to some fishermen using eagle fat, smeared on their bait, to increase their catch.{{sfn|The Nature of Scotland|p=49}}

== Footnotes ==

{{reflist|3|refs=
<ref name=bbc>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/edinburgh_and_east/7559305.stm |publisher=BBC News |title=Birds released in secret location |date=13 August 2008 |accessdate=13 August 2008}}</ref>

<ref name=BirdLife>{{cite web |publisher=BirdLife International |url=http://www.birdlife.org/news/news/2006/02/norway.html |title=Wind farm causes eagle deaths |date=3 February 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922155402/http://www.birdlife.org/news/news/2006/02/norway.html |archivedate=22 September 2013 |deadurl=yes}}</ref>

<ref name=birds.poland.pl>{{cite web |url=http://birds.poland.pl/directory/gallery,White-tailed_Eagle_(Haliaeetus_albicilla),gid,236008,cid,923.htm |title=Polish Birds Directory |website=[http://birds.poland.pl birds.poland.pl] |accessdate=30 May 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019142647/http://birds.poland.pl/directory/gallery,White-tailed_Eagle_(Haliaeetus_albicilla),gid,236008,cid,923.htm |archivedate=19 October 2011 |deadurl=yes }}</ref>

<ref name=birdwatchireland>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdwatchireland.ie/IrelandsBirds/Raptors/WhitetailedEagle/tabid/1153/Default.aspx |title=White-tailed Eagle |website=[http://www.birdwatchireland.ie BirdWatch Ireland]}}</ref>

<ref name=Brown1968>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=L.H. |last2=Amadon |first2=D. |year=1968 |title=Eagles, hawks and falcons of the world |volume=Vol. 1 |publisher=Hamlyn Publishing Group}}</ref>

<ref name=Drimnagh>{{cite web |url=http://drimnaghbirdwatch.wordpress.com/2010/03/04/farmers-protest-at-the-arrival-of-the-eagles-in-2007/ |title=Farmers protest at the arrival of the Eagles in 2007 |website=Drimnagh Birdwatch |date=4 March 2010 |accessdate=30 May 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114130433/http://drimnaghbirdwatch.wordpress.com/2010/03/04/farmers-protest-at-the-arrival-of-the-eagles-in-2007/ |archivedate=14 November 2012 |deadurl=yes}}</ref>

<ref name=fatbirder>{{cite web |first=Brian |last=Unwin |date=4 July 2014 |url=http://www.fatbirder.com/news/index.php?article=779 |website=[http://www.fatbirder.com fatbirder.com] |title=Arrivals & Alarms: White-tailed Eagle Imports Endangered by Windfarms}}</ref>

<ref name=Hailer2015>{{cite journal |first1=Frank |last1=Hailer |first2=Helen F. |last2=James |first3=Storrs L. |last3=Olson |first4=Robert C. |last4=Fleischer |year=2015 |title=Distinct and Extinct: Genetic Differentiation of the Hawaiian Eagle |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=83 |pages=40–43 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2014.11.005 |pmid=25463753}}</ref>

<ref name=HBW>{{cite book |title=[[Handbook of the Birds of the World]] |publisher=[[Lynx Edicions]] |location=[[Barcelona]]}}</ref>

<ref name=Hiiumaa>{{cite web |title=Kormoraniküttidel läheb hästi |trans_title=Cormorant Hunters are doing well  |website=[http://eestielu.delfi.ee/hiiumaa/ Hiumaa Life] |url=http://eestielu.delfi.ee/hiiumaa/elu/loodus-reguleerib-kormoranikuttidel-laheb-hasti?id=64246361 |date=13 April 2012 |language=et}}</ref>

<ref name=hs.fi>{{cite web |title=Turun Sanomat: Merikotkat oppineet syömään aikuisiakin merimetsoja |url=http://www.hs.fi/kotimaa/artikkeli/Turun+Sanomat+Merikotkat+oppineet+sy%C3%B6m%C3%A4%C3%A4n+aikuisiakin+merimetsoja/1135256870866/?cmp=tm_etu_uusimmat_uutiset |accessdate=3 February 2012 |language=fi}}</ref>

<ref name=indianbiodiversity>{{cite web |url=http://avis.indianbiodiversity.org/birds/aves/accipitriformes/accipitridae/haliaeetus/haliaeetus-albicilla |title=Haliaeetus albicilla |website=[http://avis.indianbiodiversity.org AVIS-IBIS: Birds of Indian Subcontinent]}}</ref>

<ref name=irishtimes>{{cite news |first=Anne |last=Lucey |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2010/0504/1224269640141.html |title=Sea eagle death in Kerry park brings total to 13 |newspaper=[http://www.irishtimes.com The Irish Times] |date=4 May 2010 |accessdate=30 May 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name=irishtimes2>{{cite news |first=Lorna |last=Siggins |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2012/0430/breaking36.html |title=Sea eagles return to Irish nest |newspaper=[http://www.irishtimes.com The Irish Times] |date=30 April 2012 |accessdate=30 April 2012 }}</ref>

<ref name=Janssen>{{cite web |first=Caspar |last=Janssen |url=http://www.volkskrant.nl/binnenland/zeearend-nestelt-zich-in-nederland~a996141/ |title=Zeearend nestelt zich in Nederland |trans_title=White-tailed eagle nests in the Netherlands |language=nl |publisher=[http://www.volkskrant.nl Volkskrant.nl] |date=24 March 2010 |accessdate=30 May 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name=mtv3>{{cite web |url=http://www.mtv3.fi/uutiset/kotimaa.shtml/arkistot/kotimaa/2008/07/671963 |title=Merikotkien määrä lisääntyy |trans_title=Eagles are increasing  |language=fi |publisher=MTV3.fi |date=10 July 2008 |accessdate=30 May 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name=NatlGeog>{{cite book |year=2002 |title=National Geographic Field Guide to the Birds of North America |edition=4th |publisher=National Geographic |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0792268772}}</ref>
<ref name=RaptorsWorld>{{cite book |last1=Ferguson-Lees |first1=J. |last2=Christie |first2=D. |year=2001 |title=Raptors of the World |publisher=[[Helm Identification Guides|Christopher Helm]] |location=London |isbn=0-7136-8026-1}}</ref>

<ref name=PLOS>{{cite journal |last1=Radovčić |first1=D. |last2=Sršen |first2=A.O. |last3=Radovčić |first3=J. |last4=Frayer |first4=D.W. |year=2015 |title=Evidence for Neandertal Jewelry: Modified White-Tailed Eagle Claws at Krapina |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=10 |issue=3 e0119802 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0119802 |pages=e0119802 |pmid=25760648 |pmc=4356571}}</ref>

<ref name=ravingravens>{{cite web |first=Hjörtur |last=Smárason |url=http://www.ravingravens.com/blog/2011/03/worlds-largest-white-tailed-eagle-found-in-greenland.html |title=World's Largest White-tailed Eagle |date=29 March 2011}}</ref>

<ref name=rspb>{{cite web |title=White-tailed eagle: Feeding |url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/wildlife/birdguide/name/w/whitetailedeagle/feeding.aspx |publisher=[[RSPB]] |accessdate=3 February 2012}}</ref>

<ref name=rspb2>{{cite web |publisher=[[RSPB]] |url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/supporting/campaigns/birdsofprey/threatened.asp |title=Birds of prey: Which birds are threatened? |date=23 January 2008}}</ref>

<ref name=rte>{{cite web |publisher=RTÉ |url=http://www.rte.ie/news/2007/0816/eagles.html |title=Rare eagle reintroduced to Ireland |date=16 August 2007 |website=[http://www.rte.ie/ RTÉ News]}}</ref>

<ref name=rte2>{{cite web |url=http://www.rte.ie/news/2013/0508/391034-eaglets-born/ |title=First white-tailed eagles born in Ireland in over 100 years |date=9 May 2013 |accessdate=20 May 2013 |publisher=[[Raidió Teilifís Éireann]]}}</ref>

<ref name=webcam>The Dutch national forestry, which owns the reserve, has put up a webcam trained on the nesting eagles [http://www.staatsbosbeheer.nl/actueel/zeearend/default.asp?id=%7B8301F776-F5D0-46A9-8432-99B08D34A3AC%7D] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310162650/http://www.staatsbosbeheer.nl/actueel/zeearend/default.asp?id=%7B8301F776-F5D0-46A9-8432-99B08D34A3AC%7D |date=March 10, 2007 }}</ref>

<ref name=Wood>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gerald |title=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-85112-235-9}}</ref>

<ref name=irishtimes3>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/environment/white-tailed-eagle-chicks-hatch-in-five-nests-1.2234643|title=White-tailed eagle chicks hatch in five nests|date=2 Jun 2015|publisher=[[The Irish Times]]}}</ref>
}}

; References
* {{IUCN |id=22695137 |title=''Haliaeetus albicilla'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2013 |accessdate=26 November 2013 |ref={{harvid|IUCN Red List|2013}} }}

; Cited works
* {{cite book |editor-last=Cramp |editor-first=Stanley |year=1980 |title=[[The Birds of the Western Palearctic]] |volume=2 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-857505-X |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=del Hoyo |editor-first=J. |editor2-last=Elliott |editor2-first=A. |editor3-last=Sargatal |editor3-first=J. |year=1994 |title=[[Handbook of the Birds of the World]] |volume=2 |publisher=Lynx Edicions |location=Barcelona |isbn=84-87334-15-6 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Ferguson-Lees |first=James |last2=Christie |first2=David A. |year=2001 |others=Illustrated by Kim Franklin, David Mead, and Philip Burton |title=Raptors of the World |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=978-0-618-12762-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlIztc05HTQC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=2011-05-29 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Hailer |first=Frank |year=2006 |title=Conservation genetics of the white-tailed eagle ''(Haliaeetus albicilla)''. PhD thesis |publisher=Uppsala University |location=Sweden |isbn=978-91-554-6581-0 |oclc=185328184 |url=http://publications.uu.se/abstract.xsql?dbid=6911 |accessdate=2011-05-30 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal| doi = 10.1111/j.1471-8286.2005.01122.x| last = Hailer| first = Frank| last2 = Gautschi| first2 = Barbara| last3 = Helander| first3 = Björn| year = 2005| title = Development and multiplex PCR amplification of novel microsatellite markers in the White-tailed Sea Eagle, ''Haliaeetus albicilla'' (Aves: Falconiformes, Accipitridae)| journal = Molecular Ecology Notes| volume = 5| issue = 4| pages = 938–940| pmid =| pmc =| ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal| doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2006.0453| last = Hailer | first = F.| last2 = Helander | first2 = B.| last3 = Folkestad | first3 = A. O.| last4 = Ganusevich | first4 = S. A.| last5 = Garstad | first5 = S.| last6 = Hauff | first6 = P.| last7 = Koren | first7 = C.| last8 = Nygard | first8 = T.| last9 = Volke | first9 = V.| last10 = Vilà | year = 2006 | first10 = C. | last11 = Ellegren | first11 = H.| title = Bottlenecked but long-lived: High genetic diversity retained in white-tailed eagles upon recovery from population decline| journal = Biology Letters| volume = 2| issue = 2| pages = 316–319| pmid = 17148392| pmc = 1618921| ref = harv}} [http://royalsociety.metapress.com/media/public/contributionsupplementalmaterials/0/4/2/3/0423677860G790K5/archive1.pdf Electronic appendix]
* {{cite journal| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01697.x| last = Hailer| first = F.| last2 = Helander| first2 = B.| last3 = Folkestad| first3 = A. O.| last4 = Ganusevich| first4 = S. A.| last5 = Garstad| first5 = S.| last6 = Hauff| first6 = P.| last7 = Koren| first7 = C.| last8 = Masterov| first8 = V. B.| last9 = Nygård| first9 = T.| last10 = Rudnick| first10 = J. A.| last11 = Saiko| first11 = S.| last12 = Skarphedinsson| first12 = K.| last13 = Volke| first13 = V.| last14 = Wille| first14 = F.| last15 = Vilà| first15 = C.| year = 2007| title = Phylogeography of the white-tailed eagle, a generalist with large dispersal capacity| journal = Journal of Biogeography| volume = 34| issue = 7| pages = 1193–1206| pmid =| pmc =| url = http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01697.x| ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal |last=Halley |first=D.J. |year=1998 |title=Golden and white-tailed eagles in Scotland and Norway. Coexistence, competition and environmental degradation |journal=British Birds |issn=0007-0335 |volume=91 |issue=5 |pages=171–179 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal| doi = 10.1007/s10336-007-0156-y| last = Helander| first = Björn| last2 = Hailer| first2 = Frank| last3 = Vilà| first3 = Carles| year = 2007| title = Morphological and genetic sex identification of white-tailed eagle ''Haliaeetus albicilla'' nestlings| journal = Journal of Ornithology| volume = 148| issue = 4| pages = 435–442| pmid =| pmc =| ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal |author=Scottish Natural Heritage |title=The Nature of Scotland |date=Spring 2009 |oclc=310094759 |ref={{harvid|The Nature of Scotland}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Snow |first=David W. |last2=Perrins |first2=Christopher M. |year=1998 |title=[[The Birds of the Western Palearctic]] |edition=Concise |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-854099-X |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal| last = Wink | first = M.| last2 = Heidrich | first2 = P.| last3 = Fentzloff | first3 = C.| year = 1996| doi = 10.1016/S0305-1978(96)00049-X| title = A mtDNA phylogeny of sea eagles (genus ''Haliaeetus'') based on nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome ''b'' gene| journal = Biochemical Systematics and Ecology| volume = 24| issue = 7–8| pages = 783–791| pmid =| pmc =| url = http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/1996/20_1996.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate =| ref = harv}}. The authors' reservations about using the generalised "2%" rate of [[molecular evolution]] have since proven to be well founded.

== Further reading ==
; Identification
* {{cite journal |last=Grant |first=Peter J. |authorlink=Peter J. Grant |year=1988 |title=The Co. Kerry Bald Eagle |journal=[[Twitching (magazine)|Twitching]] |volume=1 |issue=12 |pages=379–380 |quote=describes plumage differences between Bald Eagle and White-tailed Eagle in juvenile plumage}}

; Extinction in Scotland
* {{cite book |last1=Harvie-Brown |first1=J.A. |last2=Buckley |first2=T.E. |year=1892 |title=A Vertebrate Fauna of Argyll and the Inner Hebrides |location=Edinburgh |publisher=David Douglas |pages=104–107}}
* {{cite book |last1=Harvie-Brown |first1=J.A. |last2=Buckley |first2=T.E. |year=1888 |title=A Vertebrate Fauna of the Outer Hebrides |location=Edinburgh |publisher=David Douglas |pages=84–87}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Haliaeetus albicilla}}
{{Wikispecies|Haliaeetus albicilla}}
* [http://www.tk.no/vis/direktevideo/reir White-tailed Eagle Webcam - Smøla, Norway]
* [http://www.rspb.org.uk/birds/guide/w/whitetailedeagle/index.asp White-tailed Eagle] at [[RSPB]]: Birds by Name
* [http://www.birdsnetherlands.nl/white%20tailed%20eagle.htm Live webcam nest White-tailed Eagle, Oostvaardersplassen, Netherlands].
* [https://www.flickr.com/search/groups/?q=Haliaeetus%20albicilla&w=42637302%40N00&m=pool Fieldguide page on Flickr]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/species/White-tailed_Eagle White-tailed Eagles in Scotland]. BBC website.
* {{BirdLife|22695137|Haliaeetus albicilla}}
* {{Avibase|name=Haliaeetus albicilla}}
* {{InternetBirdCollection|white-tailed-sea-eagle-haliaeetus-albicilla|White-tailed Sea-eagle}}
* {{VIREO|White-tailed+eagle}}
* {{Xeno-canto species|Haliaeetus|albicilla|White-tailed eagle}}

{{Buteoninae}}
{{portalbar|Birds|Animals|Biology}}
{{taxonbar}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:White-Tailed Eagle}}
[[Category:Eagles]]
[[Category:Haliaeetus]]
[[Category:Birds of Asia]]
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[[Category:Birds of Russia]]
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[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control

2017-04-20T12:45:01Z

Rjwilmsi: Journal cites:, added 2 PMIDs, added 3 PMCs using AWB (12151)

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2013}}
The '''World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control''' ('''WHO FCTC''') is a [[treaty]] adopted by the 56th [[World Health Assembly]] held in Geneva,Switzerland on 21 May 2003.<ref name="who-fctc">{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/fctc/en/ |title=WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC) |accessdate=2008-04-30 |publisher=[[WHO]]}}</ref> It became the first [[World Health Organization]] treaty adopted under article 19 of the WHO constitution.<ref name="ajil">{{cite journal |title=Adoption of Framework Convention on Tobacco Control |journal=[[American Journal of International Law]] |volume=97 |issue=3 |pages=689–691 |date=July 2003 |jstor=3109859 |doi=10.2307/3109859 |publisher=The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 97, No. 3}}</ref> The treaty came into force on 27 February 2005.<ref name="who-fctc-p">{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/fctc/signatories_parties/en/ |title=Updated status of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control |accessdate=2008-04-30 |publisher=[[WHO]]}}</ref> It had been signed by 168 countries and is legally binding in 180 [[ratifying]] countries.<ref name="who-fctc-p"/> There are currently 16 [[United Nations member states]] that are non-parties to the treaty (nine which have not signed and seven of which have signed but not ratified).<ref name="who-fctc-np">{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/tobacco/framework/non_parties/en/index.html |title=WHO Member States (by regions) that are NOT parties to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control |accessdate=2008-04-30 |publisher=[[WHO]]}}</ref>

The FCTC, one of the most quickly ratified treaties in United Nations history,<ref name="Nikogosian, Haik 2010">{{cite journal |last1= Nikogosian |first1= Haik |year= 2010 |title= WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control: a key milestone |journal= Bulletin of the World Health Organization |volume= 88 |issue= 2 |page= 83 |doi=10.2471/blt.10.075895 |pmid=20428359 |pmc=2814489}}</ref> is a supranational agreement that seeks "to protect present and future generations from the devastating health, social, environmental and economic consequences of tobacco consumption and exposure to [[tobacco smoke]]" by enacting a set of universal standards stating the dangers of tobacco and limiting its use in all forms worldwide.<ref name="who-fctc"/><ref name="Brandt, Allan M 2007">Brandt, Allan M. The Cigarette Century: the Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product That Defined America. New York: Basic, 2007. Print.</ref> To this end, the treaty's provisions include rules that govern the production, sale, distribution, advertisement, and taxation of tobacco. FCTC standards are, however, minimum requirements, and signatories are encouraged to be even more stringent in regulating tobacco than the treaty requires them to be.<ref name="Brandt, Allan M 2007"/>

The FCTC represents a watershed moment for international [[public health]]; not only was the treaty the first to be adopted under WHO's Article 19, but it also marks one of the first multilateral, binding agreements regarding a chronic, [[non-communicable disease]].

The FCTC was furthermore a watershed moment for the European Union. According to Mamudu and Studlar, since the adoption of the FCTC in 2003, "shared sovereignty through multilevel governance has become the norm in the tobacco control policy area for EU members, including having one international organization negotiate within the context of another."<ref>MAMUDU, HADII M., and DONLEY T. STUDLAR. "Multilevel Governance and Shared Sovereignty: European Union, Member States, and the FCTC." Governance 22.1 (2009): 73–97. Business Source Complete. EBSCO. Web.</ref> Worldwide [[tobacco control]] set a precedent for EU Commission participation and negotiation in multilateral treaties, and further defined the powers and capabilities of the EU as a supranational entity.

The perceived success of the FCTC has fueled calls for many other global health treaties, although a recent review of 90 quantitative impact evaluations of international treaties broadly raises questions about their real-world impact.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoffman|first1=SJ|last2=Røttingen|first2=JA|title=Assessing the Expected Impact of Global Health Treaties: Evidence from 90 Quantitative Evaluations|journal=American Journal of Public Health|date=January 2015|volume=105|issue=1|pages=26–40|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2014.302085|pmid=25393196|url=http://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/pdf/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302085|accessdate=8 July 2015|pmc=4265908}}</ref> Four criteria have been put forward to guide the development of follow-on global health treaties.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoffman|first1=SJ|last2=Røttingen|first2=JA|last3=Frenk|first3=J|title=Assessing Proposals for New Global Health Treaties: An Analytic Framework|journal=American Journal of Public Health|date=2015|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2015.302726|pmid=26066926|url=http://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/pdf/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302726|accessdate=8 July 2015|volume=105|pages=1523–30|pmc=4504317}}</ref>

==Background==
The WHO has long been active in preventing the myriad health issues that result from tobacco consumption. As the leading cause of preventable death globally, tobacco has seen an upsurge in both its consumption and its fatality rate worldwide with the increasing interconnectedness of the global economy.<ref>"Tobacco dependence treatment and the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control." Addiction Apr. 2009: 507+. SocINDEX with Full Text. EBSCO. Web.</ref> Thus, while tobacco related-diseases differ from the communicable diseases that have traditionally been the concern of the WHO, the effects of globalization have made tobacco increasingly relevant for such intergovernmental authorities.

Under the auspices of tobacco activist Ruth Roemer, the WHO urged individual countries throughout the 1980s and 1990s to adopt national laws that have been shown to reduce tobacco use. The FCTC, however, marked the first time that the WHO went so far as to enact its international legal powers to address the problem.<ref>Fidler, David P. ASIL Insights: World Health Organization's Framework Convention for Tobacco Control. Issue brief. The American Society of International Law, 28 March 2003. Web.</ref> In fact, Roemer herself was among the original group of academics and tobacco activists who supported the idea of a framework-convention protocol approach (the rest of the group included Allyn Taylor, Derek {{not a typo|Yach}}, and Judith Mackay).<ref name="Roemer, Ruth 2005">Roemer, Ruth, Allyn Taylor, and Jean Lariviere. "Origins of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control." American Journal of Public Health 95.6 (2005): 936–38. American Public Health Association, 22 June 2004. Web.</ref>

The idea for a multilateral treaty regarding tobacco control gained traction in 1994 at the Ninth World Conference on Tobacco or Health in Paris, France, when Roemer and Taylor presented their strategy for international legal action. Roemer and Allyn, along with Judith Mackay, were successful, and their proposal was adopted as one of the conference's first resolutions.<ref name="Roemer, Ruth 2005"/>

In 1995, the World Health Assembly (WHA), in Resolution 48.11, requested that the director general "report to the 49th World Health Assembly on the feasibility of developing an international instrument, such as guidelines, a declaration or an international convention on tobacco control to be adopted by the United Nations."<ref name=Origins>Origins of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control." American Journal of Public Health 95.6 (2005): 936–38. American Public Health Association, 22 June 2004. Web.</ref> In compliance with Resolution 48.11, the WHO employed Roemer and Taylor to draft a background paper on the various mechanisms available to the WHO in effectively controlling tobacco use worldwide.<ref name=Origins/> This background paper provided a concrete recommendation for a framework convention, as opposed to alternative international legal action. According to it proponents, a framework convention would "promote global cooperation and national action for tobacco control."<ref name=Origins/>

Roemer and Taylor's proposal was met with some skepticism. [[Allan M. Brandt]], the esteemed Harvard University historian of the tobacco industry, reports, "some considered it unrealistic, impractical, and overly ambitious, and preferred a nonbinding 'code of conduct."<ref name="Brandt, Allan M 2007"/> However, with the support of Derek {{not a typo|Yach}}, head of the Policy Coordination Committee at the WHO, the proposal gained momentum.<ref name="Brandt, Allan M 2007"/> Derek {{not a typo|Yach}} became the first Director of the Tobacco Free Initiative in 1998 and steered development of the FCTC from then till its adoption in March 2003. Subsequently, Gro Harlem Brundtland was elected director general of the WHO in 1998. Brundtland, a Norwegian medical doctor with a Master of Public Health degree from Harvard University, threw her full support behind the idea for a binding multilateral treaty on tobacco control. Alongside malaria treatment and prevention, the nascent Framework Convention rose to the top of her agenda at the WHO.<ref name="Mamudu, Hadii M. 2008">Mamudu, Hadii M., Ross Hammond, and Stanton Glantz. "Tobacco Industry Attempts to Counter the World Bank Report Curbing the Epidemic and Obstruct the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control." Social science & medicine 67.11 (2008): 1690–9. Web.</ref>

==Negotiation, drafting, and economic implications==
It took three years for negotiators to come to an agreement on the terms of the FCTC. After being adopted by the World Health Assembly, the policy-making arm of the WHO, it officially went into effect in February 2005.<ref name="Nikogosian, Haik 2010"/>

A framework convention is typically justified for problems that necessitate international cooperation to effectively formulate policy. Prior to the FCTC, the majority of framework conventions addressed "environmental issues that were outside the control of individual nations."<ref name="Brandt, Allan M 2007"/> Thus, in proving that a framework convention was needed for tobacco control, treaty advocates invoked tobacco-related issues that could not be resolved by the actions of individual countries, such as the smuggling of tobacco and the leakage of tobacco advertisements from countries which lacked stringent regulation to those with restrictions on where and to whom tobacco companies could market their products. This initial justification of the framework convention is manifested in the preamble of the final version of the FCTC, which states the following issues as central to the treaty's aims:<ref name="Brandt, Allan M 2007"/>
<blockquote>
*the dramatic increase in worldwide tobacco consumption;
*the escalation in smoking and other forms of tobacco consumption by children and adolescents
*the impact of all forms of advertising, promotion, and sponsorship aimed at encouraging tobacco use
</blockquote>

The treaty is notable for its unprecedented inclusion of nongovernmental organizations throughout the negotiation and drafting processes.<ref name=Lencucha>{{cite journal |last1= Lencucha |first1= Raphael |last2= Labonté |first2= Ronald |last3= Rouse |first3= Michael J. |year= 2010 |title= Beyond Idealism and Realism: Canadian NGO/government Relations during the Negotiation of the FCTC |url= |journal= Journal of Public Health Policy |volume= 31 |issue= Supplement 1 |pages= 74–87 |doi=10.1057/jphp.2009.48}}</ref> According to Elinor Wilson, the past Vice-President of World Heart Federation, "the FCTC is an excellent example of government/non-governmental collaboration through the Framework Convention Alliance resulting in global public health gains."<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Wilson |first1= Elinor |year= 2007 |title= S8-2 FCTC GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS AND STRATEGIES |url= |journal= International Journal of Cardiology |volume= 122 |issue= 1 |page= S10 |doi=10.1016/s0167-5273(08)70327-9}}</ref> Such collaboration between NGOs and the WHO forever changed the way that the WHO treats nongovernmental organizations, and in 2002 the WHO constitution was amended to reflect this shift in relations.<ref name=Lencucha/>

Much of the groundwork for the economic justification for the FCTC was laid by the World Bank. In order to counter concerns that international tobacco control legislation would unduly harm economies of which tobacco farming, manufacturing, and sale were an important part, the WHO cited a landmark World Bank publication entitled ''Curbing the Epidemic: Governments and the Economics of Tobacco Control (CTE)'', which asserted that tobacco control would not harm economies, other than a select few agrarian countries that were unusually dependent on tobacco production. Mamudu, Hammond, and Glantz reveal that "as a financial institution with substantial influence in developing countries, the Bank's publication of CTE threatened to undermine the tobacco companies' economic arguments" about the harmful effects of tobacco control.<ref name="Mamudu, Hadii M. 2008"/>

Indeed, even before the treaty was publicly released, tobacco industry representatives embarked upon a concerted effort to thwart the efforts of FCTC drafters, in addition to participating policy-makers from individual WHO member states. Unable to argue against the overwhelming scientific evidence about tobacco's harmful health effects, the tobacco industry seized upon the FCTC's potential for economic harm. In response to the World Bank's ''CTE,''the industry made a number of attempts to discredit the report, especially through the public relations efforts of the International Tobacco Growers' Association (ITGA) and by employing non-World Bank economists to release their own analyses.<ref name="Mamudu, Hadii M. 2008"/> Between 4–16 March of the year 2000, the ITGA, financed by the tobacco industry, set out on what they dubbed a "Roadshow," during which ITGA representatives spoke to policy-makers in the developing countries of India, Kenya, Malawi, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, in addition to two "mini-Roadshows" in Argentina and Brazil, in order to voice ITGA opposition to the FCTC on the grounds that the ''CTE'' had underestimated the threat that tobacco control would pose to developing economies.<ref name="Mamudu, Hadii M. 2008"/> Once negotiations for the FCTC were underway, the tobacco industry again made attempts to lessen the blow of international legislation on their business by lobbying delegates at the convention in Geneva. According to Mamudu, Hammond, and Glantz, however, "these efforts... did not undermine acceptance of ''CTE'' during the FCTC negotiations and ''CTE'' remained an authoritative economic analysis of global tobacco control."<ref name="Mamudu, Hadii M. 2008"/>

Nevertheless, the FCTC acknowledges that its agenda will inevitably hurt farmers who currently depend on tobacco for their livelihoods. To that end, the treaty encourages Parties to help tobacco farmers make the transition from tobacco to alternative crops. Article 17 of the Framework Convention states: "Parties shall, in cooperation with each other and with competent international and regional intergovernmental organizations, promote, as appropriate, economically viable alternatives for tobacco workers, growers and, as the case may be, individual sellers."<ref>"WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC)". WHO. http://www.who.int/fctc/en/</ref> In particular, the FCTC favors sustainable development options over tobacco farming. To achieve this, Party governments and tobacco control advocates are encouraged to invest in better infrastructure, especially transportation, to ease farmers' access to new and foreign markets when making the transition, while simultaneously improving farmers' access to credit that may be necessary in converting their existing facilities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Jones |first1= Alison Snow |display-authors= 1 |last2= et al |year= 2008 |title= Tobacco Farmers and Tobacco Manufacturers: Implications for Tobacco Control in Tobacco-Growing Developing Countries |url= |journal= Journal of Public Health Policy |volume= 29 |issue= 4 |pages= 406–423 |doi=10.1057/jphp.2008.37}}</ref>

==Requirements==
Significant provisions of the treaty require that parties implement the following measures:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Topic
! Measure
! Articles
|-
| [[Lobbying]]
| Call for a limitation in the interactions between lawmakers and the tobacco industry.
| Article 5.3
|-
| [[Demand reduction]]
| Tax and other measures to reduce tobacco demand.
| Article 6 & 7
|-
| [[Passive smoking]]
| Obligation to protect all people from exposure to tobacco smoke in indoor workplaces, public transport and indoor public places.
| Article 8
|-
| Regulation
| The contents and emissions of tobacco products are to be regulated and ingredients are to be disclosed.
| Article 10
|-
| [[Packaging and labeling]]
| Large [[Tobacco packaging warning messages|health warning]] (at least 30% of the packet cover, 50% or more recommended); deceptive labels ("mild", "light", etc.) are prohibited.
| Article 9 & 11
|-
| [[Awareness]]
| Public awareness for the consequences of smoking.
| Article 12
|-
| [[Tobacco advertising]]
| Comprehensive ban, unless the national constitution forbids it.
| Article 13
|-
| [[Substance dependence|Addiction]]
| Addiction and cessation programs.
| Article 14
|-
| [[Smuggling]]
| Action is required to eliminate illicit trade of tobacco products.
| Article 15
|-
| [[minor (law)|Minors]]
| Restricted sales to minors.
| Article 16
|-
| Research
| Tobacco-related research and information sharing among the parties.
| Articles 20, 21, & 22
|}

[http://gamapserver.who.int/mapLibrary/Files/Maps/World_TobaccoConvention_status.jpg World Map Status]

==Non-parties==
The United States is a non-party to the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control.<ref name="who-fctc-np"/> When the signed treaty was put up for ratification, President [[George W. Bush]] failed to send the FCTC to the United States Senate for consideration, thereby preventing the full participation of the U.S in the implementation of the Framework Convention.

Furthermore, the U.S. has sought to change certain provisions of the FCTC, but with limited success.<ref name="ajil"/> Among the provisions opposed successfully were a mandatory ban on the distribution of free tobacco samples (which is now optional), a narrow definition of the term "minor" regarding the sale of tobacco (which now refers to domestic or national law) and broad limitations concerning the tobacco advertising, promotion and sponsorship (which were seen as violating [[free speech]], and are now subject to constitutional limitations). Among the provisions unsuccessfully opposed by the U.S. were the requirement for warning labels to be written in the language of the country where the tobacco products are being sold, and the ban on deceptive and misleading descriptions such as "low tar" or "ultra-light", which might infringe on trademark protections.

As of 2014, there are 17 non-party states that are members of the UN: seven that have signed but not yet ratified ([[Argentina]], [[Cuba]], [[Haiti]], [[Morocco]], [[Mozambique]], [[Switzerland]], and the [[United States]]); and 10 that have not signed ([[Andorra]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Eritrea]], [[Indonesia]], [[Liechtenstein]]*, [[Malawi]], [[Monaco]], [[Somalia]], [[South Sudan]], and [[Zimbabwe]]).

*''Note'': Liechtenstein, although not a WHO Member State, is eligible to become a Party to the WHO FCTC as a UN Member State.

==Implementation, oversight, and future direction==
The FCTC established two principal bodies to oversee the functioning of the treaty: the Conference of the parties and the permanent Secretariat. In addition, there are over 50 different intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations who are official observers to the Conference of the Parties.<ref name="Nikogosian, Haik 2010"/>

According to Nikogosian, "most parties have now passed or are renewing and strengthening national legislation and policies to meet their obligations under the treaty."<ref name="Nikogosian, Haik 2010"/> A 2010 update on the progress of FCTC implementation reported that 80% of Parties currently facilitate public information and/ or education programs on the dangers of tobacco, in addition to curbing underage tobacco consumption through laws that forbid retailers from selling tobacco products to minors. Furthermore, 70% of Parties have made "large, clear and visible health warnings" mandatory for tobacco packaging.<ref name="Nikogosian, Haik 2010"/> However Nikogosian warns that the treaty is merely a "tool", and that its effectiveness hinges on how Parties implement the guidelines it sets forth.<ref name="Nikogosian, Haik 2010"/> Going forward, FCTC implementation proves most difficult for developing and transition economies, due to a rift between their need for tobacco control and the resources to which they have access in meeting FCTC guidelines. Nevertheless, this proves to be difficult for e.g. the European Union,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Henning|first=Peter K.|author2=Shmatenko, Leonid |title=Plain Packaging on Its Way to Europe: Competence Issues and Compatibility with European Fundamental Rights|journal=Transnational Dispute Management|date=November 2012|volume=9|issue=5|pages=1–17|ssrn=2171205|accessdate=}}</ref> or Australia.

===Criticism===
Recent attempts to evaluate the implementation and efficacy of FCTC showed that actual state compliance with the framework is quite low, and that its implementation infrastructure is ridden with errors.<ref name="Hoffman">{{cite journal |last1= Hoffman |first1= S.J. |last2= Rizvi |first2= Z. |year= 2012 |title= WHO's Undermining Tobacco Control |url= |journal= The Lancet |volume= 380 |issue= 9843 |pages= 727–728 |doi= 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61402-0 |pmid=22920746}}</ref> For instance, when Hoffman ''et al.'' compared WHO's FCTC implementation database with national implementation reports they found that 32.7% of country responses were misreported in the database; 3% were obvious errors, 24.5% were missing despite being reported by countries, and 5.3% were misinterpreted by the WHO staff. These findings highlighted the need for a stronger WHO infrastructure to track and record state compliance with policies.<ref name="Hoffman"/>

==Protocol==
In 2012, a supplementary [[Protocol to Eliminate Illicit Trade in Tobacco Products]] to the Convention was concluded in [[Seoul]], South Korea. The Protocol will enter into force after it has been ratified by 40 states that have ratified the Convention.

===Proceedings of COP-6===
Reporters and the public were forcibly removed from the October 2014 convention which occurred in Moscow.<ref name="DailyCaller201410">{{cite web |url=http://dailycaller.com/2014/10/14/reporters-removed-restrained-at-world-health-organization-meeting-on-global-tobacco-tax/ |title=Reporters Removed, Restrained At World Health Organization Meeting On Global Tobacco Tax |accessdate=14 October 2014 |quote=Washington Times editorial writer Drew Johnson told The Daily Caller that he was physically escorted out of the meeting’s convention hall by a guard while another reporter was physically restrained from entering the room, even though WHO never formally voted to restrict the media from the event.}}</ref><ref name="WT201410">{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/oct/13/johnson-uns-health-agency-works-global-tobacco-tax/ |title=JOHNSON: UN’s health agency boots public, press to work on a global tobacco tax in secret |accessdate=14 October 2014 |quote=After the doors were slammed shut and the meeting resumed, it became clear why the delegates chased the public away: They wanted to work on passing a global tax on tobacco in secret.}}</ref> ''[[Washington Times]]'' reported that the FCTC delegates were discussing a global tobacco tax in secret.<ref name="WT201410"/> The International Tobacco Growers Association seeks an open, inclusive and transparent dialogue with the WHO’s FCTC.
<ref>http://www.bdlive.co.za/opinion/2016/04/06/who-has-eschewed-transparency-in-its-fight-against-tobacco</ref>

==See also==
*[[Tobacco control]]
*[[Tobacco Damages and Health Care Costs Recovery Act]]
*[[Protocol to Eliminate Illicit Trade in Tobacco Products]]
*[[World No Tobacco Day]]

==References==
{{Reflist|32em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.who.int/fctc/text_download/en/ WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control]
*[http://globaltobaccocontrol.org/ Institute for Global Tobacco Control]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20120415144529/http://globalink.org/ GLOBALink Tobacco Control, The International Tobacco Control Community (archived 2012)]
*[http://www.ncdlinks.org/ GlobaLink (tobacco control), part of ncdlinks.org] (registration required)

{{Smoking nav}}

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Karabastau Svita

2017-04-03T14:16:55Z

Rjwilmsi: /* Invertebrates */Journal cites:, added 1 PMID, added 1 PMC using AWB (12150)

{{Infobox rockunit
| name = Karabastau Svita
| image =
| caption =
| type = [[Geological formation]]
| age = [[Late Jurassic]] ([[Oxfordian (stage)|Oxfordian]] - [[Kimmeridgian]])
| prilithology =
| otherlithology =
| namedfor =
| namedby =
| region = [[Asia]]
| country = [[Kazakhstan]]
| coordinates =
| unitof =
| subunits =
| underlies =
| overlies =
| thickness =
| extent =
| area =
| map =
| map_caption =
}}
The '''Karabastau Svita''' is a geological [[Formation (geology)|formation]] in Kazakhastan whose strata date back to the [[Late Jurassic]]. [[Pterosaur]] remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation.<ref name="Pterosaur">Barrett, P.M., Butler, R.J., Edwards, N.P., & Milner, A.R. Pterosaur distribution in time and space: an atlas. p61-107. in Flugsaurier: Pterosaur papers in honour of Peter Wellnhofer. 2008. Hone, D.W.E., and Buffetaut, E. (eds). Zitteliana B, 28. 264pp.[http://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/12007/1/zitteliana_2008_b28_05.pdf]</ref>

==Paleofauna==

===Vertebrates===

{| class="wikitable" align="center" width="100%"
|-
! Genus
! Species
! County
! Member
! Abundance
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
''[[Batrachognathus]]''
|
''B. volans''
|
|
|
|
An [[Anurognathid]] Pterosaur.
| rowspan="99" |
|-
|
''[[Karatausuchus]]''
|
''K. sharovi''
|
|
|
|
An [[Atoposauridae|Atoposaurid]] [[Crocodylomorph]].
| rowspan="99" |
|-
|
''[[Karaurus]]''
|
''K. sharovi''
|
|
|
|
One of the earliest [[salamander]]s.
| rowspan="99" |
|-
|
''[[Sordes]]''
|
''S. pilosus''
|
|
|
|
A [[Rhamphorhynchid]] Pterosaur.
| rowspan="99" |
|-
|}

===Invertebrates===

{| class="wikitable" align="center" width="100%"
|-
! Genus
! Species
! County
! Member
! Abundance
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
''[[Auliepterix]]''
|
''A. mirabilis''
|
|
|
|
A [[Micropterigidae|Micropterygid]] moth.
| rowspan="99" |
|-
|
''[[Omma]]'' <ref>{{cite journal|first1= Jingjing|last1= Tan|first2= Yongjie|last2= Wang|first3= Dong|last3= Ren|first4= Xingke|last4= Yang|year= 2012|title= New fossil species of ommatids (Coleoptera: Archostemata) from the Middle Mesozoic of China illuminating the phylogeny of Ommatidae|journal= BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume= 12|pages= 113|doi= 10.1186/1471-2148-12-113|url= http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/12/113|pmid=22776212|pmc=3518168}}</ref>
|
''O. aberatum'', ''O. jurassicum'', ''O. pilosum''
|
|
|
|
[[Ommatidae|Ommatid]] beetles
| rowspan="99" |
|-
|
''[[Palaeolepidopterix]]''
|
''P. aurea''
|
|
|
|
A [[Micropterigidae|Micropterygid]] or [[Eolepidopterigidae|Eolepidopterigid]] moth.
| rowspan="99" |
|-
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Paleontology}}
* [[List of pterosaur-bearing stratigraphic units]]
* [[List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Kazakhstan]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Kazakhstan}}

[[Category:Jurassic Asia]]
[[Category:Geology of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Lagerstätten]]
[[Category:Jurassic System of Asia]]
[[Category:Paleontology in Kazakhstan]]

{{geologic-formation-stub}}
{{Kazakhstan-geo-stub}}
{{paleo-site-stub}}

Iris tenuifolia

2017-04-02T09:28:38Z

Rjwilmsi: /* Biochemistry */Journal cites:, added 1 PMID using AWB (12150)

{{italic title}}{{Taxobox
|name = ''Iris tenuifolia''
|image = Iris tenuifolia; Baikonur 005.jpg
|image caption = flower head of Iris tenuifolia in Kazakhstan.
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Monocots]]
|ordo = [[Asparagales]]
|familia = [[Iridaceae]]
|subfamilia = [[Iridoideae]]
|tribus = [[Irideae]]
|genus = ''[[Iris (plant)|Iris]]''
|subgenus = ''[[Iris subg. Limniris|Limniris]]''
|series=''[[Iris series Tenuifoliae]]''
|species = '''''I. tenuifolia'''''
|binomial = ''Iris tenuifolia''
|binomial_authority = [[Peter Simon Pallas|Pall]]
| synonyms = {{species list
|Cryptobasis tenuifolia |(Pall.) Nevski
|Iris acaulis |Pall.
|Iris regelii | Maxim. ex Regel
|Joniris tenuifolia |(Pall.) Klatt
|Neubeckia tenuifolia |(Pall.) Alef.
|Xiphion tenuifolium |(Pall.) Schrank }}<ref name=plantlist>{{cite web |title=Iris tenuifolia Pall. is an accepted name |date=23 March 2012 |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-322290 |publisher=theplantlist.org ([[The Plant List]]) |accessdate=19 January 2015}}</ref>
}}
'''''Iris tenuifolia''''' is a beardless [[iris (plant)|iris]] in the genus ''[[Iris (plant)|Iris]]'', in the subgenus ''[[Iris subg. Limniris|Limniris]]'' and in the ''[[Iris series Tenuifoliae|Tenuifoliae series]]'' of the species. It is a [[rhizomatous]] [[herbaceous plant|herbaceous]] [[perennial plant|perennial]], from a wide region over central Asia, including [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], (the former [[Soviet Union]] republics of); [[Kazakhstan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Mongolia]] and in [[China]]. It has long greyish-green leaves, short stem and pale violet, lilac, pale blue, or purple flowers.

==Description==
[[File:Iris tenuifolia; Baikonur 004.jpg|thumb]]
Iris tenuifolia is very similar in form to the [[Mediterranean]] ''[[Iris unguicularis]]''. As they both have very small stems and the seed capsules are often hidden within the leaves of the plant.<ref name=dykesonirises/>

It has a dark brown, thin, short, knobbly, tough, wood-like rhizomes.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=ussrflora>{{cite web |first=V.L. | last=Komarov | year=1935 | title=Akademiya Nauk SSSR (FLORA of the U.S.S.R.) Vol. IV |publisher=archive.org | url=https://archive.org/stream/floraofussr04bota/floraofussr04bota_djvu.txt |accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref> Underneath, it has a network of fibrous roots.<ref name=swewe/>
On top of the rhizome, at the base of the leaves, are the brown or red-brown, fibrous remains of the previous seasons leaves. Which act as sheaths, for the new leaves.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=European>James Cullen, Sabina G. Knees, H. Suzanne Cubey (Editors) {{Google books|CkxWrDqtWLQC|The European Garden Flora Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification(2011) |page=259}}</ref> The sheaths can be up to {{convert|6|-|20|cm|0|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=swewe/><ref name=ussrflora/>

It can be either a single plant or can grow into thick clumps of plants.<ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=knigi/>

It has greyish-green, linear, twisted, leaves, that can grow between {{convert|20|-|60|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 1.5–2 mm wide.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=European/><ref name=cassidy/><ref name=hort/><ref name=onego/>
They do not have a mid-vein but paralled veins,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/> and are acuminate (ending in a point).<ref name=ussrflora/>
They continue to grow after blooming, and can end up as a mass of twisted leaves.<ref name=hort/>

The leaves are longer than the flowering stems.<ref name=ussrflora/>

It has a very short flowering stem or [[Scape (botany)|scape]], {{convert|10|-|30|cm|0|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=European/><ref name=cassidy/><ref name=onego/><ref name=rainbow/><ref name=handbook>{{cite web |first=William |last=Dykes |authorlink=William Rickatson Dykes |title=Handbook of Garden Irises |year=2009 |url=http://www.beardlessiris.org/reviews/handbook%20of%20garden%20irises%20-%20dykes.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=beardlessiris.org (The Group for Beardless Irises) |accessdate=1 November 2014}}</ref><ref name=irisbotanique>{{cite web |title=Chapitre II iris a touffe et autre (partie2) |url=http://irisbotanique.over-blog.com/article-chapitre-ii-iris-a-touffe-et-autre-partie1-106517062.html |publisher=irisbotanique.over-blog.com |accessdate=20 January 2015}}</ref><ref name=pacific>{{cite web |title=Iris summary |date=14 April 2014 |url=http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/files/Iris/Iris_Summary.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=pacificbulbsociety.org |accessdate=23 November 2014}}</ref>
Although, sometimes the stems do not emerge above ground.<ref name=efloras/>

It has 2 to 4, pointed (acuminate), [[Biological membrane|membranous]], green, between {{convert|5|-|10|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 8–10 mm wide, [[spathe]]s (leaves of the flower bud).<ref name=efloras/><ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=European/>

The stems hold normally 1–3, terminal (top of stem) flowers,<ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=European/><ref name=cassidy/><ref name=onego/><ref name=rainbow/> blooming in spring, between April and May,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=hort/><ref name=irisbotanique/> or late as earl June (in Russia).<ref name=onego/>

The scented flowers,<ref name=ussrflora/> are {{convert|4|-|7|cm|0|abbr=on}} in diameter,<ref name=European/> and come in shades of pale violet,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=pacific/> lilac,<ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=rainbow/><ref name=pacific/> pale blue,<ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=cassidy/><ref name=onego/><ref name=rainbow/><ref name=irisbotanique/> or purple.<ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=cassidy/><ref name=onego/><ref name=rainbow/><ref name=irisbotanique/>
It has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large [[sepals]] (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or [[tepals]], known as the 'standards'.<ref name=ClaireAustin/> The falls are spatulate (spoon shaped) or obovate-lanceolate,<ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/> {{convert|4.5|-|6|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|1.5|cm|0|abbr=on}} wide.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=European/> They have a thin central yellow crest or mid-vein, dark veins (on a pale colour), and a band of papillose (or small hairs).<ref name=efloras/><ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=pacific/>
The narrower, oblanceolate, erect standards are {{convert|5|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 5–9 mm wide.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=ussrflora/>

It has a long, slender thread-like, perianth tube, {{convert|4.5|-|8|cm|0|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=European/><ref name=onego/>

It has 3 single coloured, style branches, {{convert|4|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 4–5 mm wide.<ref name=efloras/> They [[attenuate]] (narrow slightly) and at the tips, are toothed.<ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=ussrflora/>

It has a slender 3–4 mm long pedicel,<ref name=ussrflora/> {{convert|3|cm|0|abbr=on}} long Stamens and a cylindric {{convert|7|-|12|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 2 mm wide, Ovary.<ref name=efloras/>

After the iris has flowered, between late July and early August (in Russia),<ref name=onego/> or between August and September (in China). It produces an ovoid or sub-globose, {{convert|3.2-4.5|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|1.2-1.8|cm|0|abbr=on}} wide, seed capsule. It has short beak-like appendage on the top.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=hort/><ref name=onego/>

The seeds are oval (or turbinate – like a top) shaped, wrinkled and black-brown to brown.<ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=onego/>

Often, the seed capsule is hidden by the long leaves.<ref name=dykesonirises/>

===Biochemistry===
In February 1997, a study was published in which 6 new [[flavanone]]s, isolated from the rhizomes of ''Iris tenuifolia'', using high resolution [[mass spectrometry]].<ref>{{cite journal |last= Kojima |first=Keisuke |last2= Gombosurengyin |first2= Purevsuren |last3= Ondognyi |first3= Purev |last4= Begzsurengyin |first4=Dagvatseren |last5= Zevgeegyin |first5= Oyun |last6= Hatano |first6= Keiichiro |last7=Ogihara |first7= Yukio |date= February 1997 |title=Flavanones from Iris tenuifolia |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031942296005961 |journal=Phytochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Ltd. |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=711–714 |doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(96)00596-1 |accessdate=28 January 2015}}</ref>

In 2005, it was noted that the rhizomes of Iris tenuifolia are the source of the largest number of new 2’-O-substituted simple [[flavanone]]s within a single species.<ref>{{cite book |first=Oyvind M. |last=Andersen |first2=Kenneth R. |last2=Markham |title=Flavonoids: chemistry, biochemistry, and applications. |date=9 December 2005 |publisher=CRC Press |url=http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9780849320217 |isbn= 9780849320217 |accessdate=28 January 2015}}</ref>

Between 2007 and 2011, a study was carried out on chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of ''Iris tenuifolia'' and ''[[Iris halophila]]''. Using chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques. The irises have been used in various tradition herbal remedy’s, such as traditional Mongolian herb medicine and [[Uighur]] herb medicine.<ref name=metapop>{{cite web |title=Hui Wang (PhD) http://www.metapop.univ-montp2.fr/?page_id=532 |publisher=metapop.univ-montp2.fr |accessdate=19 January 2015}}</ref>

In 2008, several chemical compounds were extracted from ''Iris tenuifolia''. These included; 'izalpinin', 'alpinone', 'arborinone', 'irilin B', 'irisone A', 'irisone B', 'betavulgarin', 'beta-sitosterol' '5,7-dihydroxy-2', '6-dimethoxy-isoflavone' , 2',5-dihdroxy-6,7-methylenedioxy flavanone, 'irisoid A' and 'ethyl-beta-d-glucopyranoside'. Also 2 new compounds were found, ''tenuifodione'' and ''tenuifone''. All found using [[spectroscopic]] methods.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Choudhary |first=Muhammad Iqbal |last2=Hareem |first2=Sumaira |last3=Siddiqui |first3=Hina |last4=Anjum |first4=Shazia |last5=Ali |first5=Shamsher |last6=Zaidi |first6=Mudassir Israr |date=1 June 2008 |title=A benzil and isoflavone from Iris tenuifolia. |url=http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/papers/18472117 |journal=Phytochemistry |publisher=sigmaaldrich.com |volume=69 |issue=9 |pages=1880–1885 |doi= 10.1016/j.phytochem.2008.03.011|accessdate=28 January 2015 |pmid=18472117}}</ref>

In 2011, 2 flavans and a flavanone, were extracted from the rhizomes of ''Iris tenuifolia'' and then tested against [[stem cell]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cui |first=Yan-Mei |last2=Wang |first2=Hui |last3=Liu |first3=Quan-Ru |last4=Han |first4=Mei |last5=Lu |first5=Yang |last6=Zhao |first6=Chang-Qi |date=17 August 2011 |title=Flavans from Iris tenuifolia and their effects on β-amyloid aggregation and neural stem cells proliferation in vitro. |url=http://www.pubfacts.com/detail/21737268/Flavans-from-Iris-tenuifolia-and-their-effects-on-%CE%B2-amyloid-aggregation-and-neural-stem-cells-proli |journal=Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. |publisher= |volume=21 |issue=15 |pages=4400–4403 |accessdate=28 January 2015 |doi=10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.06.039}}</ref>

In 2012, a genetic study was carried out on ''[[Iris laevigata]]'' and several of its closely related iris species, including ''[[Iris ensata]]'', ''[[Iris setosa]]'', ''[[Iris halophila]]'', ''[[Iris scariosa]]'', ''[[Iris potaninii]]'', ''Iris tenuifolia'', ''[[Iris bloudowii]]'', and ''[[Iris sanguinea]]''.
<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sun |first=Ming-Zhou |last2=Li |first2=Ming-Rui |last3=Shi |first3=Feng-Xue |last4=Li |first4=Lin |last5=Liu |first5=Ying |last6=Li |first6=Lin-Feng |last7=Xiao |first7=Hong-Xing |date=July 2012 |title=Genomic and EST-derived microsatellite markers for Iris laevigata (Iridaceae) and other congeneric species |url=http://www.amjbot.org/content/99/7/e286.full |journal=American Journal of Botany |publisher= |volume=99 |issue=7 |pages=286–288 |doi=10.3732/ajb.1100608 |accessdate=5 May 2015 |pmid=22739712}}</ref>

In 2014, the characteristics of phenotypic plasticity and ecological adaptation of ''Iris tenuifolia'' from various habitats in [[Xinjiang]], China, were studied.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lu |first=Zhuo |last2=Guan |first2=Kai-Yun |last3=Li |first3=Wen-Jun |last4=Duan |first4=Shi-Min |date=2014 |title=Phenotypic plasticity and biomass allocation of Iris tenuifolia Pall. in different habitats. |url=http://www.cje.net.cn/EN/abstract/abstract6909.shtml |journal=Chinese Journal of Ecology |publisher=Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=618–623 |doi= |accessdate=28 January 2015}}</ref>

As most irises are [[diploid]], having two sets of [[chromosomes]]. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.<ref name=ClaireAustin>{{cite web| first=Claire | last=Austin | title=Irises A Garden Encyclopedia| pages=274–275 | url=https://worldtracker.org/media/library/Reference/Encyclopedia's/Encyclopedia%20of%20Irises.pdf | format=PDF | publisher=worldtracker.org | accessdate=29 October 2014}}</ref>
It has a chromosome count: 2n=14<ref name=efloras/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wang |first=Yan Limei |last2=Wei |first2=Yan Sha |date=January 1999 |title=Karyotype Analysis in Iris Tenuifolia |url= |journal=Journal of Qiqihar University (Natural Science Edition) |publisher=Qiqihar University |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi= |accessdate= 28 January 2015}}</ref>

== Taxonomy==
It is written as 细叶鸢尾 in [[Chinese characters|Chinese script]] and known as ''xi ye yuan wei'' in [[Pinyin]] Chinese.<ref name=efloras>{{cite web |title=FOC Vol. 24 Page 305 |url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id= 200028220 |publisher=efloras.org (Flora of China) |accessdate=28 January 2015}}</ref><ref name=fabaceae>{{cite web |title=中国豆科植物在线 (chinese name) |url=http://fabaceae.onlineflora.cn/taxonomy/term/12959 |publisher=fabaceae.onlineflora.cn |accessdate=19 January 2015}}</ref><ref name=grin>{{cite web |title= Taxon: Iris tenuifolia Pall. |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?20429 |publisher=ars-grin.gov ([[Germplasm Resources Information Network]]) |accessdate=28 January 2015}}</ref>

The Latin [[Botanical name#Binary name|specific epithet]] ''tenuifolia'' comes from the almagamtion of two Latin words ''tenuis'' meaning 'fine or thin' and ''folia'' mean ''leaf''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=A.W. |last2=Stearn |first2=William T. |date=1972 |edition=Revised |publication-date=1963 | title= A Gardener's Dictionary of Plant Names | publisher=Cassell and Company | pages=68–69 | isbn=0304937215}}</ref>

It has the common names of ''Egeria Iris''<ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe>{{cite web |title=Egeria Iris |url=http://tl.swewe.net/word_show.htm/?181704_1&Egeria_Iris |publisher=tl.swewe.net |accessdate= 29 January 2015}}</ref><ref name=pan>{{cite web |title=Iris tenuifolia Pall. |url=http://www.flph.org/s/Iris tenuifolia |publisher=flora of Pan Himalayas |accessdate=24 October 2014}}</ref><ref name=pan>{{cite web |title=Iris tenuifolia Pall. |url=http://www.flph.org/s/Iris tenuifolia |publisher=flora of Pan Himalayas |accessdate=24 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sect. Limniris Tausch |url=http://frps.eflora.cn/frps/Sect. Limniris |publisher=frps.eflora.cn |accessdate=19 January 2015}}</ref> Note; 'Egeria' means water buffaloes or cows pulling (in China).<ref name=fabaceae/> Another common name is ''narrow leafed iris'',<ref name=mongolmed>{{cite journal |last=Sarantsetseg |first=B. |last2=Ambaga |first2=M. |last3=Khürelbaatar |first3=L. |date=2001 |title=Narrow-leaf iris (Iris tenuifolia) kidney protection activity |url= http://www.mongolmed.mn/article/1189 |journal=Mongolian Medicine |publisher=Mongolian Association of Medical journals |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi= |accessdate=19 January 2015}}</ref> or ''fine leaved iris'',<ref name=exhibition>{{cite web |title=The exhibition "Iris Russia" |url=http://flower-iris.ru/en/knigi-pro-iridariy/zaglyanut-v-knigu/66/ |publisher=flower-iris.ru |accessdate=23 January 2015}}</ref> or ''slender-leaf iris'',<ref name=grin/> or ''silk leaves Iris''.<ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=pan/>

It was published and described by [[Peter Simon Pallas]] in ''Reise Russ. Reich.'' Vol.3 page714 in 1776.<ref>{{cite web |title=Iridaceae Iris tenuifolia Pall. |url=http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idPlantNameSearch.do?id=439173-1|publisher=ipni.org (International Plant Names Index) |accessdate=19 January 2015}}</ref>

It was introduced to Russia in 1812, and was noted as growing in the front garden of Mr. A. Razumovsky near [[Moscow]].<ref name=exhibition>{{cite web |title=The exhibition "Iris Russia" |url=http://flower-iris.ru/en/knigi-pro-iridariy/zaglyanut-v-knigu/66/ |publisher=flower-iris.ru |accessdate=23 January 2015}}</ref>

It was later published with an illustration in [[The Gardeners' Chronicle]] 3rd. Series Vol.59 page196 on 8 April 1916.<ref name=america>{{cite web |first=Alain |last=Franco |title=(Spec) Iris tenuifolia Pall. |date=30 November 2013 |url=http://wiki.irises.org/bin/view/Spec/SpecTenuifolia |publisher=wiki.irises.org (American Iris Society) |accessdate=19 January 2015}}</ref>

It was verified by [[United States Department of Agriculture]] [[Agricultural Research Service]] on 2 October 2014.<ref name=grin/>

As of January 2015, it is listed as a ''tentativily accepted'' name by the [[Royal Horticultural Society|RHS]].<ref name=rhs>{{cite web |title=Iris tenuifolia |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/9383/Iris-tenuifolia/Details |publisher=rhs.org.uk |accessdate=28 January 2015}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:Iris tenuifolia; Baikonur 003.jpg|thumb|Iris tenuifolia on the left bank of [[Syr-Darya]] river in Kazakhstan]]
''Iris tenuifolia'' is [[native plant|native]] to a wide region, of various [[temperateness|temperate]] areas of Central [[Asia]].<ref name=grin/><ref name=rhs/>
Which extends from the [[Volga]] through [[Turkestan]] into [[Mongolia]],<ref name=handbook/> and China.

===Range===
It is found in the western Asian countries of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]].<ref name=efloras/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=grin/>

In the middle Asian countries of (the former [[Soviet Union]] republics of); [[Kazakhstan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Mongolia]].<ref name=efloras/><ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=hort/><ref name=onego/><ref name=pacific/><ref name=grin/>
Also found in regions of Russia, including [[Agin-Buryat Okrug]], [[Bashkortostan]], [[Chelyabinsk]], Chita and [[Siberia]].<ref name=efloras/><ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=hort/><ref name=onego/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=pacific/><ref name=grin/>

It is listed with ''[[Iris bloudowii]]'', ''[[Iris humilis]]'', ''[[Iris ruthenica]]'', ''[[Iris sibirica]]'' and ''[[Iris tigridia]]'' as being found in the [[Altai-Sayan region]] (where Russia, China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan come together).<ref>{{cite web |title=Biodiversity of Altai-Sayan Ecoregion |url=http://www.bioaltai-sayan.ru/regnum/eng/species_all.php?right=box-spec-p/iris.php |publisher=bioaltai-sayan.ru |accessdate=15 August 2015}}</ref>

It is found within central China,<ref name=cassidy/><ref name=hort/><ref name=onego/><ref name=pacific/> in the [[Provinces of China|provinces]] of [[Gansu]], [[Hebei]], [[Heilongjiang]], [[Jilin]], [[Liaoning]], [[Nei Mongol]], [[Ningxia]], [[Qinghai]], ([[Shangdong]]<ref name=efloras/>), [[Shanxi]], [[Xinjiang]] and [[Xizang]].<ref name=efloras/><ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=grin/>

One reference mentions Turkey.<ref name=swewe/> One reference mentions Iran.<ref name=hort/> Since most others do not mention these countries, they are not regarded as valid.

===Habitat===
It is grown in semi-desert, desert or mild mountainous areas.<ref name=rainbow/>

On sandy [[steppe]]s, on dunes, beside sandy riverine grasslands or river banks, on dry coastal sand regions, on gravelly desert-like slopes and in the crevices of rocks.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=fabaceae/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=ussrflora/><ref name=knigi/><ref name=onego/><ref name=rainbow/>

It is also grown at altitudes of 1000 to 4200m above sea level.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=swewe/><ref name=knigi/><ref name=irisbotanique/>

In north east China, it is found growing on poor soils on open tree-less plains.<ref name=hort/>

==Conservation==
In 2003, it was listed as an endemic [[vascular]] species of the temperate [[steppe]] region of [[Inner Mongolia]], China, along with ''[[Stipa grandis]]'', ''[[Artemisia frigida]]'', ''[[Festuca ovina]]'', ''[[Thymus serpyllum]]'', ''[[Caragana microphylla]]'', ''[[Koeleria cristata]]'' and others.<ref name=forest>Jirí Kolbek, Miroslav Srutek and Elgene E. O. Box (Editor){{Google books|VmtPnUbH-uIC|Forest Vegetation of Northeast Asia (2003)| page=80}}</ref>

It is included in the [[IUCN]] 'Red Data Book' of the [[Chita Oblast]] of 2002, listed as 'rare'. It is now protected in Dauria and Khopyor reserves.<ref name=exhibition/>

==Cultivation==
''Iris tenuifolia'' is rare in cultivation in the UK.<ref name=cassidy>{{cite book |last1=Cassidy |first1=George E.|last2=Linnegar |first2=Sidney |date=1987 |edition=Revised |title= Growing Irises |location=Bromley |publisher=Christopher Helm | page=139 |isbn=0-88192-089-4}}</ref><ref name=blight>Samuel Hereman {{Google books|D6tWAAAAcAAJ|Blight on flowers; or figures and descriptions of the insects infesting the flower garden (1840)|page=142}}</ref> It is rare in cultivation in the US as well.<ref name=hort>{{cite web |first=Jim |last=Murrain |title=Subject: Iris tenuifolia |date=3 June 2010 |url=https://www.hort.net/lists/iris-species/jun10/msg00026.html |publisher=hort.net |accessdate= 29 January 2015}}</ref>

They are more grown by specialised collectors or for scientific and research purposes.<ref name=swewe/><ref name=hort/>

It was sometimes used as [[annual plant]] and only planted during the summer (in the UK, in 1800s).<ref name=blight/>

It is [[Hardiness (plants)|hardy]], if sited in a northern continental climate. Similar to Nebraska, North Dakota or South Dakota.<ref name=hort/> It is hardy in parts of Russia. It has been grown in Moscow, St Petersburg and [[Chita Oblast|Chita]].<ref name=onego>{{cite web |title=Subgenus Tenuifolia (Tenuifolia) - fine-leaved irises |url=http://flower.onego.ru/other/iris/iris_ten.html |publisher=flower.onego.ru |accessdate=22 January 2015}}</ref>

It prefers sandy or sandy loam soils, similar to the desert habitat.<ref name=swewe/><ref name=cassidy/><ref name=rainbow>{{cite web |title=Rainbow |date=9 December 2014 |url=http://wdtns.ru/?p=586 |publisher=wdtns.ru |accessdate=24 January 2015}}</ref> It prefers alkaline soils.<ref name=knigi>{{cite web |title=Subgenus Tenuifolia (Tenuifolia) - fine-leaved iris |url=http://flower-iris.ru/en/knigi-pro-iridariy/zaglyanut-v-knigu/64/ |publisher=flower-iris.ru |accessdate= 29 January 2015}}</ref>

They prefer positions in full sun.<ref name=knigi/>

It needs to be kept dry during winter, needing the protection of [[bulb frame]]s (in the UK). It only needs water during the growing period.<ref name=cassidy/>
The plant loses its foliage during the winter, as it is removed by the forces of wind, snow and other bad weather conditions. It then re-grows leaves, in April and May.<ref name=hort/>

It has high drought and heat tolerance (desert-like conditions).<ref name=knigi/><ref name=hort/><ref name=rainbow/>

==Propagation==
The seed of Iris tenuifolia is rarely used by western horticulturists, as the plants rarely flower.<ref name=hort/> [[William Rickatson Dykes]] notes that it ''made no satisfactory growth'' and never flowered.<ref name=dykesonirises>{{cite web |first=William |last=Dykes |title=Dykes on Iris |url=http://www.beardlessiris.org/reviews/dykes%20on%20irises%20-%20part1.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=beardlessiris.org (The Group for Beardless Irises) |accessdate=21 November 2014}}</ref>

In other flowering regions, the seed can be harvested in autumn, washed, fresh or dried.<ref name=swewe/>

===Hybrids and Cultivars===
Due to its high drought and heat resistance, it could be useful in breeding purposes.<ref name=onego/><ref name=exhibition/>

==Uses==
In 2001, a study was carried to monitor the effects of the iris, within a herbal remedy for [[kidney]] protection was carried out.<ref name=mongolmed/>

The Iris genus has been used as a traditional folk medicine, used to treat a variety of diseases, such as [[cancer]], inflammation, bacterial and viral infections.<ref name=patent>{{cite web |title=Extract from Iris tenuifolia, preparation method and application thereof |url=http://www.google.com/patents/CN101716262B?cl=en |publisher=google.com |accessdate=29 January 2015}}</ref> It was found that compounds isolated from ''[[Iris germanica]]'' have anti-tumor, anti-oxidation, anti-malarial parasite and anti-TB and other positive effects.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rahman |first=A.U. |last2=Nasim |first2=S. |last3=Baig |first3=I. |last4=Jalil |first4=S. |last5=Orhan |first5=I. |last6=Sener |first6=B. |last7=Choudhary |first7=M.I. |date=June 2003 |title=Anti-inflammatory isoflavonoids from the rhizomes of Iris germanica |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |publisher= |volume=86 |issue=2–3 |pages=177–180 |doi= 10.1016/s0378-8741(03)00055-2|pmid=12738083}}</ref>

The roots, seeds and flowers of the iris, are used as ingredients in herbal medicines. They have been used as [[tocolysis]] (also called anti-contraction medications or labor represents) and to treat [[fetal]] [[metrorrhagia]].<ref name=swewe>{{cite web|title=Egeria Iris |url=http://tl.swewe.net/word_show.htm/?181704_1&Egeria_Iris |publisher=tl.swewe.net |accessdate= 29 January 2015}}</ref>

On 24 December 2009, a [[patent]] was granted, for the extraction of ''Iris tenuifolia''. Due to its chemical compounds being used in the treatment of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name=patent/>

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Other sources==
*Czerepanov, S. K. 1995. Vascular plants of Russia and adjacent states (the former USSR).
*Khassanov, F. O. & N. Rakhimova. 2012. Taxonomic revision of the genus Iris L. (Iridaceae Juss.) for the flora of Central Asia. Stapfia 97:175.
*Komarov, V. L. et al., eds. 1934–1964. Flora SSSR.
*Mathew, B. 1981. The Iris. 123–124.
*Tutin, T. G. et al., eds. 1964–1980. Flora europaea.
*Waddick, J. W. & Zhao Yu-tang. 1992. Iris of China.
*Wu Zheng-yi & P. H. Raven et al., eds. 1994–. Flora of China (English edition).

{{Commons category-inline|Iris tenuifolia}}
{{Wikispecies-inline|Iris tenuifolia}}

[[Category:Iris (plant)|tenuifolia]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1776]]
[[Category:Flora of China]]
[[Category:Flora of Russia]]
[[Category:Flora of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Flora of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Flora of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Flora of Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Flora of Mongolia]]

Caspian seal

2017-02-18T19:17:07Z

Rjwilmsi: Journal cites:, added 1 PMID, added 2 PMCs using AWB (12142)

{{Taxobox
| image = Stamp of Azerbaijan 477.jpg
| status = EN
| status_system = iucn3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn">{{IUCN2008|assessor=Härkönen, T. |year=2008|id=41669|title=Pusa caspica|downloaded=29 January 2009}}</ref>
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| subordo = [[Pinnipedia]]
| familia = [[Phocidae]]
| genus = ''[[Pusa]]''
| species = '''''P. caspica'''''
| binomial = ''Pusa caspica''
| binomial_authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1788)
| synonyms = <center>''Phoca caspica''</center>
| range_map = Caspian Seal area.png
| range_map_caption = Caspian seal range
}}

The '''Caspian seal''' (''Pusa caspica'') is one of the smallest members of the [[earless seal]] family and unique in that it is found exclusively in the brackish [[Caspian Sea]]. They are found not only along the shorelines, but also on the many rocky islands and floating blocks of ice that dot the Caspian Sea. In winter, and cooler parts of the spring and autumn season, these [[marine mammal]]s populate the Northern Caspian. As the ice melts in the warmer season, they can be found on the mouths of the [[Volga River|Volga]] and [[Ural River|Ural]] Rivers, as well as the southern latitudes of the Caspian where cooler waters can be found due to greater depth.

Evidence suggests the seals are descended from Arctic [[ringed seal]]s that reached the area from the north during an earlier part of the [[Quaternary]] period and became isolated in the landlocked Caspian Sea when continental ice sheets melted.

==Description==
Adults are about 126–129 cm in length. Males are longer than females at an early age, but females experience more rapid growth until they reach ten years of age. Males can grow gradually until they reach an age of about 30 or 40 years.<ref name=role>{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Susan|last2=Eybatov|first2=Tariel|last3=Amano|first3=Masao|last4=Jepson|first4=Paul|last5=Goodman|first5=Simon|title=The Role of Canine Distemper Virus and Persistent Organic Pollutants in Mortality Patterns of Caspian Seals(Pusa caspica)|journal=PLoS ONE|date=2 July 2014|volume=9|issue=7|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0099265|pages=e99265|pmid=24987857|pmc=4079250}}</ref> Adults weigh around {{convert|86|kg|lb|abbr=on}}; males are generally larger and bulkier. Their [[dental formula]] is I 3/2, R 1/1, PC 6/5.

The skull structure of the Caspian seal suggests it is closely related to the [[Baikal seal]]. In addition, the morphological structures in both species suggest they are descended from the [[ringed seal]] which migrated from larger bodies of water around two million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Endo|first1=H.|last2=Sakata|first2=S.|last3=Arai|first3=T.|last4=Miyazaki|first4=N.|title=The Muscles of Mastication in the Caspian Seal (Phoca caspica)|journal=Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia: Journal of Veterinary Medicine|date=April 2001|volume= 31|issue= 5|pages=262–265|doi=10.1046/j.1439-0264.2002.00372.x}}</ref>

Caspian seals are shallow divers, with diving depths typically reaching 50 m and lasting about a minute, although deeper and longer dives have been recorded, with at least one individual seen at depths in excess of 165 m.<ref>{{cite web|title=Seal@ 167m.|url=http://s641.photobucket.com/user/1972rainman/media/Other/image_zps2a610382.jpg.html][IMG]http://i641.photobucket.com/albums/uu131/1972rainman/Other/image_zps2a610382.jpg[/IMG][/URL}}</ref> They are gregarious, spending most of their time in large colonies.

Caspian seals can be found not only along the shorelines, but also on the many rocky islands and floating blocks of ice that dot the Caspian Sea. As the ice melts in the warmer season, they can be found on the mouths of the Volga and Ural Rivers, as well as the southern latitudes of the Caspian where cooler waters can be found due to greater depth.

In winter, and cooler parts of the spring and autumn season, these marine mammals populate the Northern Caspian. In the first days of April, spring migration to the southern part of the Caspian Sea begins with mature female seals and their pups, during this migration hungry seals eat the fish in the nets. Male mature seals stay in the northern Caspian Sea longer and wait until the moulting is completed. In summer, seals find empty places in the western part of Apsheron for resting. In the eastern part, the most crowded place used to be the Ogurchinskiy Island, but by 2001, fewer than 10 pups were recorded on Ogurchinsky, some of which were killed by people on the island.

==Diet==
Caspian seals are primarily piscivorous. They eat a variety of food depending on season and availability. A typical diet for Caspian seals found in the northern Caspian sea consists of crustaceans and various fish species, such as ''Clupeonella engrauliformis, C. grimmi, C. delicate caspia'', Gobiidae, ''Rutilus rutilus caspicus, Atherina mochon pontica'', and ''Lucioperca lucioperca''. Caspian seal adults eat about 2–3 kg of fish a day and almost a metric ton of fish per year.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Khuraskin|first1=L|last2=Pochotoyeva|first2=N|title=Status of the Caspian Seal Population|journal=Caspian Environment Program|date=November 1997|pages=86–94}}</ref>

In autumn and winter, Caspian seals prey mostly on sculpins, gobies, and crustaceans while inhabiting shallow waters in the northern part of the sea. During the summer, in the southern part of the Caspian Sea, they eat herring, roach, carp, sprat, and smelt. When Caspian seals live in estuaries, they eat large amounts of the freshwater species,'' Sander lucioperca''. Other prey include shrimp, crab, and silversides.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Grimeks|first1=B|title=Grimeks Encyclopedia of Mammals|date=1990|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New Jersey|pages=220–238|edition=Second}}</ref>

Being one of the top predators in the ecosystem, Caspian seals had hazardous chemicals found inside their bodies such as heavy metals, organochlorine compounds, and radionuclides.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ikemoto|first1=T|last2=Kunito|first2=T|last3=Watanabe|first3=I|last4=Yasunaga|first4=G|last5=Baba|first5=N|last6=Miyazaki|first6=N|last7=Petrov|first7=E. A.|last8=Tanabe|first8=S|title=Comparison of trace element accumulation in Baikal seals (Pusa sibirica), Caspian seals (Pusa caspica) and northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus)|journal=Environmental Pollution|date=2004|volume=127|issue=1|pages=83–97|pmid=14553998|doi=10.1016/s0269-7491(03)00251-3}}</ref>

==Behavior==
Caspian seals are shallow divers, typically diving 50 m for about one minute, although scientists have recorded Caspian seals diving deeper and for longer periods of time. After foraging during a dive, they rest at the surface of the water.<ref name="Chanticlear Press">{{cite book|last1=Reeves|first1=R|last2=Stewart|first2=B|last3=Clapham|first3=P|last4=Powell|first4=J|title=Guide to Marine Mammals of the World|date=2002|publisher=Chanticlear Press|location=New York}}</ref>

In the summer and winter, during mating season, Caspian seals tend to live in large groups. At other times of the year, these seals are solitary. During the summer, however, they make aggressive snorts or use flipper waving to tell other seals to keep their distance. Little else is known about their behavior.<ref name="Chanticlear Press"/>

==Reproduction==
Male and female Caspian seals are monogamous. Among breeding seals, a lack of fighting for a mates seems prevalent. In late autumn, Caspian seals travel to the northern part of the Caspian Sea where the water is shallow and frozen to give birth in secluded areas on ice sheets after a gestation period of 11 months. Normally, pregnancy rates are 40 to 70%, but are currently at an all-time low of 30%. In late January to early February, female seals give birth to one pup each. Similar to other ringed seals, these pups are born with white [[pelage]]s and weigh about 5 kg. Their white coats are [[molt]]ed at around three weeks to a month. Male pups become sexually mature after six to seven years, whereas female pups sexually mature after five to seven years. Newborn pups are not fully grown until 8 to 10 years after they are born.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Easley-Appleyard|first1=Bonnie|title=Pusa Caspica Caspian Seal|journal=Animal Diversity Web|date=2006|url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Pusa_caspica/#757c91a32120facf8ff6bc9e83c87ac3|accessdate=23 October 2014}}</ref> Breeding begins a few weeks after the birth of last year’s pup around late February to mid March. Breeding usually occurs after weaning of a newborn pup, but can begin while the pup is still nursing. Caspian seals migrate back to the southern part of the Caspian Sea after the breeding season and molting in late April because the north begins to warm with constant ice melting. The southern region of the Caspian Sea has deep, colder waters where the seals spend the summer months.<ref>{{cite journal|editor1-last=Hogan|editor1-first=Michael C|title=Caspian Seal|journal=The Encyclopedia of Earth|date=22 July 2010|url=http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/150951/|accessdate=24 October 2014}}</ref>

==Threats==
[[Sea eagle (bird)|Sea eagles]] are known to hunt these seals, which results in a high number of fatalities for the juveniles. They are also hunted by humans for subsistence and commerce. As of 2006, commercial icebreaker routes have passed through areas with high Caspian seal pup concentrations, which may contribute to loss of habitat.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Harkonen|first1=Tero|last2=Jüssi|first2=Mart|last3=Baimukanov|first3=Mirgaly|last4=Bignert|first4=Anders|last5=Dmitrieva|first5=Lilia|last6=Kasimbekov|first6=Yesbol|last7=Verevkin|first7=Mikhail|last8=Wilson|first8=Susan|last9=Goodman|first9=Simon J.|title=Pup Production and Breeding Distribution of the Caspian Seal (''Phoca caspica'') in Relation to Human Impacts|journal=AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment|date=Jul 2008|volume= 37|issue= 5|pages=356–361|doi=10.1579/07-r-345.1}}</ref>

In a three-week period in February 1978, [[Grey wolf|wolves]] were responsible for the killing of numerous seals near [[Astrakhan]]. An estimated 17 to 40% of the seals in the area were killed, but not eaten.<ref name="Graves">{{cite book|last1=Rumyantsev |first1=V. D. |first2=L. S. |last2=Khuraskin |year=1978 |chapter=New data on the mortality of the Caspian seal due to wolves |title=Page 187 in Congress of the All-Union Theriological Society, 2nd |editor=P. A. Panteleev |display-editors=etal |publisher=Nauka |location=Moscow |volume=ZR 116 |number=19 |page=5669}}</ref>

For threats related to migration, high density seal aggregations were recorded in November 2009 and 2010 CISS helicopter surveys in Kenderli Bay, but the integrity of seal habitat in Kenderli Bay is currently threatened by an imminent large-scale coastal resort development. This resort development can be a serious disturbance for seals. The local authorities have been advised about the need to preserve the seal habitats in the bay, but it is not yet clear what steps are planned to achieve this. According to the present study, Kosa Kenderli plays an important role for the seasonal migration of the Caspian seals and is recommended to be a protection area.

Due to increased industrial production in the area, pollution has had an effect on the survival of the Caspian seal. From 1998 to 2000, the concentration of zinc and iron increased dramatically in the tissue of dead, diseased seals. This suggests these elements are causative agents in compromising the Caspian seal's immune system.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Anan|first1=Y.|last2=Kunito|first2=T.|last3=Ikemoto|first3=T.|last4=Kubota|first4=R.|last5=Watanabe|first5=I.|last6=Tanabe|first6=S.|last7=Miyazaki|first7=N.|last8=Petrov|first8=E.A.|title=Elevated Concentrations of Trace Elements in Caspian Seals (Phoca caspica) Found Stranded During the Mass Mortality Events in 2000|journal=Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology|date=March 2002|volume= 42|issue= 3|pages=354–362|doi=10.1007/s00244-001-0004-7}}</ref>

A century ago, their population was estimated at 1.5 million seals; in 2005, 104,000 remained, with an ongoing decline of 3-4% per year.<ref name=assessment>{{cite journal|last1=Dmitrieva|first1=Lilia|last2=Kondakov|first2=Andrey|last3=Oleynikov|first3=Eugeny|last4=Kydyrmanov|first4=Aidyn|last5=Karamendin|first5=Kobey|last6=Kasimbekov|first6=Yesbol|last7=Baimunkanov|first7=Mirgaliy|last8=Wilson|first8=Susan|last9=Goodman|first9=Simon|title=Assessment of Caspian Seal By-Catch in an Illegal Fishery Using an Interview-Based Approach|journal=PLoS ONE|date=26 June 2013|volume=8|issue=6|pages=1–6|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0067074|pmid=23840590|pmc=3694144}}</ref>

===Canine distemper virus===
Several recent cases of large numbers of Caspian seals dying due to [[canine distemper]] virus have been reported, in 1997, 2000, and 2001.<ref name=role /> In April 2000, a mass die-off of Caspian seals was first reported near the mouth of the Ural River in Kazakhstan. It spread south to the Mangistau region, and by the end of May, more than 10,000 seals had died along the Kazakhstan coast. High death rates were also recorded in May and June along the Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan and the Turkmenistan coast.<ref name=mass>{{cite journal|last1=Kennedy|first1=Seamus|last2=Kuiken|first2=Thijs|last3=Jepson|first3=Paul|last4=Deaville|first4=Robert|last5=Forsyth|first5=Morag|last6=Barrett|first6=Tom|last7=van de Bilt|first7=Marco|last8=Osterhaus|first8=Albert|last9=Eybatov|first9=Tariel|last10=Callan|first10=Duck|last11=Kydyrmanov|first11=Aidyn|last12=Mitrofanov|first12=Igor|last13=Wilson|first13=Susan|title=Mass Die-Off of Caspian Seals by Canine Distemper Virus|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|date=1 November 2000|volume=6|issue=6|pages=637–639|pmid=11076723|doi=10.3201/eid0606.000613|pmc=2640919}}</ref>

Clinical signs of infected seals included debilitation, muscle spasms, ocular and nasal exudation, and sneezing. Necropsies performed in June 2000 on eight Azerbaijan seals revealed microscopic lesions, including bronchointerstitial pneumonia, encephalitis, pancreatitis, and lymphocytic depletion in lymphoid tissues. Similar lesions were also discovered on four seals from Kazakhstan. Morbillivirus antigen was also detected in multiple tissues, including lung, lymph nodes, spleen, brain pancreas, liver, and epithelial tissue of the reproductive, urinary, and gastrointestinal tracts. Such tissue lesions are characteristic of distemper in both terrestrial and aquatic mammals.<ref name=mass />

Tissues from 12 carcasses found in Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan were examined for morbillivirus nucleic acid. Sequences from the examination showed that canine distemper virus, which is part of the genus ''Morbillivirus'', was the primary cause of death. The sequences also proved that seals from widely separated regions of the Caspian Sea were infected by the same virus. This finding established spatial and temporal links between the seal deaths in these regions. The sequences were also identical to that of canine distemper virus found in the brain tissue of a seal that died in 1997 and showed no morbillivirus lesions. This suggests persistence of canine distemper virus in the Caspian seal population over a span of several years or repeated spillover from the same terrestrial reservoir.<ref name=mass />

Another study in 2000 using 18 Caspian seal corpses found several concurrent bacterial infections that could have contributed to the illness of the affected seals. These include ''Bordetella bronchiseptica'', ''Streptococcus phocae'', ''Salmonella dublin'', and S. ''choleraesuis''. ''Corynebacterium caspium'', a new bacterium, was identified in one of the seals, and poxvirus, ''Atopobacter phocae'', ''Eimeria''- and ''Sarcocystis''-like organisms, and a ''Halarachne'' species were identified in Caspian seals for the first time. The study also asserts that the “unusually mild” winter that preceded the die-off in 2000 could have contributed to its cause “through increased ambient air pressure and accelerated disappearance of ice cover at the breeding areas in the northern Caspian Sea.”<ref name=canine>{{cite journal|last1=Kuiken|first1=T.|last2=Kennedy|first2=S.|last3=Barrett|first3=T.|last4=Van de Bilt|first4=M.W.G.|last5=Borgsteede|first5=F.H.|last6=Brew|first6=S.D.|last7=Codd|first7=G.A.|last8=Duck|first8=C.|last9=Deaville|first9=R.|last10=Eybatov|first10=T.|last11=Forsyth|first11=M.A.|last12=Foster|first12=G.|last13=Jepson|first13=P.D.|last14=Kydyrmanov|first14=A.|last15=Mitrofanov|first15=I.|last16=Ward|first16=C.J.|last17=Wilson|first17=S.|last18=Osterhaus|first18=A.D.M.E.|title=The 2000 Canine Distemper Epidemic in Caspian Seals (Phoca Caspica): Pathology and Analysis of Contributory Factors|journal=Veterinary Pathology|date=1 May 2006|volume=43|issue=3|pages=321–338|pmid=16672579|doi=10.1354/vp.43-3-321}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
*[http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/mat/ekolo/vk/palo/geneticd.pdf Jukka Palo: Genetic diversity and phylogeography of landlocked seals]
*[http://seamap.env.duke.edu/species/tsn/622019 OBIS-SEAMAP - Species Profiles]

==External links==
{{Commons|Phoca caspica|Caspian seal}}
{{Wikispecies|Phoca caspica|Caspian seal}}
*[http://www.pinnipeds.org/seal-information/species-information-pages/the-phocid-seals/caspian-seal Caspian seal factsheet at pinnipeds.org]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070302090217/http://www.baztab.ir:80/news/61696.php "Caspian Seal under threat of extinction"], [[Baztab]] newspaper. Persian article.

{{Carnivora|C1.}}

[[Category:Phocins]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Caspian Sea]]
[[Category:Mammals of Southwest Asia|Seal, Caspian]]
[[Category:Mammals of Azerbaijan|Seal, Caspian]]
[[Category:Mammals of Kazakhstan|Seal, Caspian]]
[[Category:Mammals of the Middle East|Seal, Caspian]]
[[Category:Endemic fauna of the Caspian Sea]]
[[Category:Pinnipeds of Asia]]
[[Category:Pinnipeds of Europe]]

Iris falcifolia

2017-01-30T08:47:41Z

Rjwilmsi: Journal cites, added 1 PMID using AWB (12142)

{{italic title}}{{taxobox
|name = Iris falcifolia
|image =
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Monocots]]
|ordo = [[Asparagales]]
|familia = [[Iridaceae]]
|subfamilia = [[Iridoideae]]
|tribus = [[Irideae]]
|genus = ''[[Iris (plant)|Iris]]''
|subgenus = ''[[Iris subg. Iris|Iris]]''
|sectio =''Hexapogon''
|species = '''''Iris falcifolia'''''
|binomial = ''Iris falcifolia''
|binomial_authority = [[Alexander von Bunge|Bunge]]
|synonyms = None known<ref>{{cite web |title=Iris falcifolia Bunge is an accepted name |date= 23 March 2013 |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-321811 |publisher=theplantlist.org ([[The Plant List]])|accessdate=29 September 2014}}</ref>
}}
'''''Iris falcifolia''''' is a species in the genus ''[[Iris (plant)|Iris]]'', it is also in the subgenus of [[Iris subg. Iris|Iris]] and in the Hexapogon section. It is a [[rhizomatous]] [[perennial plant|perennial]], from [[Uzbekistan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Iran]] and [[Pakistan]]. It is a small plant, with sickle-shaped greyish-green leaves (hence the name), lilac-violet flowers and darker veining, and a white or yellow beard. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in dry, [[temperateness|temperate]] regions.

==Description==
It has a thick, short, rhizome.<ref name=Fedorov>Andreĭ Aleksandrovich Fedorov (Editor){{Google books|vmW-DPOAttEC|Flora of Russia, The European Part and bordering regions, Volume 4, 2001 (Translation of Flora Evropeiskoi Chasti SSSR, 1979)|page=443}}</ref><ref name=efloras>{{cite web |title=Pakistan V. 202 |url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=240010012 |publisher=efloras.org (Flora of Pakistan) |accessdate= 10 April 2015}}</ref><ref name=FloraofUSSR>{{cite web|first=V.L. | last=Komarov | year=1935 | title=Akademiya Nauk SSSR (FLORA of the U.S.S.R.) Vol. IV | publisher=archive.org | url=https://archive.org/stream/floraofussr04bota/floraofussr04bota_djvu.txt | accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref><ref name=british>British Iris Society (1997) {{Google books|pL6uPLo7l2gC|A Guide to Species Irises: Their Identification and Cultivation|pages=97-98}}</ref> It produces nut-like segments, one per year, that spread to create small dense tufts of plants.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/> On top of the rhizome are the fibrous remains of the previous seasons leaves.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/> Underneath are thick fleshy roots.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/>

It has greyish-green, (falcate) curved leaves, that are covered in very small hairs.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/><ref name=american>{{cite web |first=Alain |last=Franco |title=(SPEC) Iris falcifolia Bunge |date=5 December 2013 |url=http://wiki.irises.org/bin/view/Spec/SpecFalcifolia |publisher=wiki.irises.org (American Iris Society) |accessdate=10 April 2015}}</ref> They can grow up to {{convert|25|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 2–4 mm wide.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=british/><ref name=cassidy>{{cite book |last1=Cassidy |first1=George E.| last2=Linnegar | first2=Sidney | date=1987 |edition=Revised | title= Growing Irises |location=Bromley | publisher=Christopher Helm | page=125 | isbn=0-88192-089-4}}</ref>

It is a dwarf plant,<ref name=stebbings>{{cite book |last=Stebbings |first=Geoff |year=1997|title=The Gardener's Guide to Growing Irises |url= |location=Newton Abbot |publisher=David and Charles |page=16 |isbn=0715305395 }}</ref> It has stem (or peduncle) that can grow up to between {{convert|10|-|35|cm|0|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=british/><ref name=american/><ref name=cassidy/><ref name=pacific>{{cite web |title=Iris summary |date=14 April 2014 |url=http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/files/Iris/Iris_Summary.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=pacificbulbsociety.org |accessdate=23 November 2014}}</ref>
The stem is hidden by 1-2 sheathing leaves.<ref name=british/>

The stems have 3-4 [[spathe]]s (leaves of the flower bud), that are {{convert|2.5|-|5|cm|0|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/>
They are greenish tinted purplish, partially membranous, with a hyaline (clear and translucent) margin.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=british/>

The stems hold short pedicels (flower stalks),<ref name=efloras/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/> and 2-5 flowers,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/><ref name=american/><ref name=cassidy/> in spring,<ref name=stebbings/> between March and April.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/>

The flowers are {{convert|3|-|4|cm|0|abbr=on}} in diameter,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=british/> come in shades of lilac-violet,<ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/><ref name=american/><ref name=stebbings/><ref name=pacific/> and purple.<ref name=cassidy/>

It has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large [[sepals]] (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or [[tepals]]), known as the 'standards'.<ref name=ClaireAustin>{{cite book |first=Claire |last=Austin |title=Irises; A Garden Encyclopedia |year=2005 |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=0881927309 }}</ref>
The falls are oblong or lanceolate-obovate shaped, and are {{convert|3|-|4|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 0.6-0.9 cm wide.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/> They have a yellow,<ref name=FloraofUSSR/> or whitish beard in the middle of the leaf.<ref name=Fedorov/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=american/><ref name=Harris>{{cite web |first=Gwenda |last=Harris |title=Classification Of Irises, Presented At Convention 2011 |date=2011 |url=http://www.nziris.org.nz/conventdocs/Classification%20of%20irises.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=nziris.org.nz |accessdate=25 April 2015}}</ref> They have darker veining.<ref name=american/><ref name=pacific/>
The standards are lanceolate, narrow, with a canaliculate (small channel) on the haft (section of the petal closest to the stem).<ref name=efloras/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/>

It has a small perianth tube, {{convert|3|cm|0|abbr=on}} cm long,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=british/> 1.0 cm long filaments, 1-1.5 cm long anthers,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=british/> and a globose and crenulated (notched) stigma.

It has a pale lilac,<ref name=FloraofUSSR/> and {{convert|2.7|cm|0|abbr=on}} cm long style branches, which are keeled, and have narrow lobes which are 8mm long.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=british/>

After the iris has flowered, it produces an oval seed capsule, which is {{convert|2.5|-|3.5|cm|0|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=british/>
The seeds come out of the capsule via lateral slits,<ref name=Fedorov/> they are 5mm long and pear shaped.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=british/>
They have a whitish, ring shaped aril (appendage), on the smaller end.<ref name=Fedorov/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=british/>

===Biochemistry===
As most irises are [[diploid]], having two sets of [[chromosomes]], this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.<ref name=ClaireAustin/>
It has a chromosome count: 2n=18,<ref name=pacific/> which was discovered by Zakharyeva in 1985.<ref name=american/>

== Taxonomy==
It is known in Pakistan as 'khakhobe'.<ref name=crc>Umberto Quattrocchi {{Google books|-37OBQAAQBAJ|CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants: Common Names, Scientific names, Synonyms and Etymology}}</ref><ref name=Goodman>{{cite web |first=Steven M. |last=Goodman |first2=Abdul |last2=Ghafoor |date=1992 |title=The Ethnobotany of Southern Balochistan, Pakistan, with Particular Reference to Medicinal Plants |url=https://archive.org/stream/ethnobotanyofsou31good/ethnobotanyofsou31good_djvu.txt |publisher=archive.org |page=255 |accessdate=25 April 2015}}</ref><ref name=Ratsch>Christian Rätsch {{Google books|Rs5rAwAAQBAJ|The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications|page=764}}</ref>

The Latin [[Botanical name#Binary name|specific epithet]] ''falcifolia'' refers to 'sickle shaped leaves'.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=A.W. |last2=Stearn |first2=William T. |date=1972 |edition=Revised |publication-date=1963 | title= A Gardener's Dictionary of Plant Names | publisher=Cassell and Company | page=139 | isbn=0304937215}}</ref>

It was found in 1847, in [[Baluchistan]] (Pakistan) near the [[Caspian Sea]],<ref name=american/> by [[Alexander von Bunge]].<ref name=cassidy/>

It was first published and described by Alexander von Bunge in ''Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Flora Russlands und der Steppen Central-Asiens'' (Beitr. Fl. Russl.) Vol.329 on 7 November 1852.<ref name=ipni>{{cite web|title=Iridaceae Iris falcifolia Bunge |url=http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idPlantNameSearch.do?id=928051-1 |publisher=ipni.org (International Plant Names Index) |accessdate=10 April 2015}}</ref><ref name=grin>{{cite web |title=Taxon: Iris falcifolia Bunge |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?20299 |publisher=ars-grin.gov ([[Germplasm Resources Information Network]]) |accessdate=10 April 2015}}</ref>
It was also published in 'Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. St.-Pétersbourg Divers Savans' Vol.7 page505 in 1854.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=grin/><ref name=Stapfia>{{cite journal |last= Khassanov |first=F. O. |last2= Rakhimova |first2=N. |date=2012 |title=Taxonomic revision of the genus Iris L. (Iridaceae Juss.) for the flora of Central Asia |url=http://www.landesmuseum.at/pdf_frei_remote/STAPFIA_0097_0174-0179.pdf |journal=Stapfia |format=PDF |publisher= |volume=97 |issue= |pages=174–179 |doi= |accessdate=25 April 2015}}</ref> Later published in 1941, 'Flora Uzbek' Vol.1 page 510, in 1971 in 'Consp. Fl. As. Med.' Vol.2 page130 and by [[Per Erland Berg Wendelbo|Wendelbo]] in 'Flora Iranica' Vol.112 page37 in 1975.<ref name=Stapfia/>

Later in 1913, [[William Rickatson Dykes]], when he wrote his book the 'Genus Iris', placed the iris in the Regelia section. Then Lawrence in 1953 and Rodionenko in 1987 placed it in the Psammiris section.<ref name=wilson>{{cite journal |last=Wilson |first=Carol A. |last2= |first2= |date=2004 |title=Phylogeny of the genus Iris based on DNA sequence data |url=http://rsabg.org/iris/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=13 |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |publisher= |volume=33 |issue= |pages=402–412 |doi= 10.1016/j.ympev.2004.06.013|accessdate=25 April 2015 |pmid=15336674}}</ref> In 2004, Carol Wilson carried out a study on various irises including ''Iris falcifolia''. She thought that the iris was misplaced and that it had a bulb instead of a rhizome, so should be placed with the Juno ([[Iris subg. Scorpiris|Scorpiris]]) section.<ref name=wilson/>
In 2011, a molecular study was carried out and replaced the iris back within the Hexapogon section.<ref name=Linnean>{{cite journal |last=Ikinci |first=Nursel |last2=Hall |first2=Tony |last3= Lledó |first3=M. Dolores |last4= Clarkson |first4=James J. |last5=Tillie |first5= Nico |last6= Seisums |first6=Arnis |last7=Saito |first7=Takeshi |last8= Harley |first8=Madeline |last9=Chase |first9=Mark W. |date=2011 |title=Molecular phylogenetics of the juno irises, Iris subgenus Scorpiris (Iridaceae), based on six plastid markers |url=http://www.researchgate.net/...irises_Iris...Scorpiris.../00b4953075207ea955000000.pdf |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |publisher= |volume=167 |issue= |pages=281–300 |doi= 10.1111/j.1095-8339.2011.01176.x|accessdate=25 April 2015}}</ref>

It was verified by [[United States Department of Agriculture]] and the [[Agricultural Research Service]] on 2 October 2014.<ref name=grin/>

Iris falcifolia is an accepted name by the [[Royal Horticultural Society|RHS]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Iris falcifolia |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/23032/Iris-falcifolia/Details |publisher=rhs.org.uk |accessdate=10 April 2015}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
''Iris falcifolia'' is [[native plant|native]] to temperate and tropical regions of central Asia.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/><ref name=pacific/><ref name=crc/><ref name=grin/><ref name=Linnean/>

===Range===
It is found in temperate regions of Afghanistan,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=british/><ref name=cassidy/><ref name=grin/><ref name=Stapfia/><ref name=handbook>{{cite web |first=William |last=Dykes |authorlink=William Rickatson Dykes |title=Handbook of Garden Irises |year=2009 |url=http://www.beardlessiris.org/reviews/handbook%20of%20garden%20irises%20-%20dykes.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=beardlessiris.org (The Group for Beardless Irises) |accessdate=1 November 2014}}</ref> Iran,<ref name=british/><ref name=crc/><ref name=grin/><ref name=Stapfia/> (in the former states of USSR),<ref name=ipni/> in Turkmenistan,<ref name=grin/><ref name=Stapfia/> Uzbekistan,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=grin/><ref name=Stapfia/> and Kazakhstan.<ref name=efloras/>

It is found in the tropical region of Pakistan,<ref name=grin/><ref name=Stapfia/> (also known as 'Baluchistan').<ref name=efloras/><ref name=british/><ref name=crc/><ref name=Goodman/><ref name=Ratsch/><ref name=handbook/>

They are specifically found in [[Kara Kum]] (desert) and [[Kyzyl Kum]] (desert) in Kazakhstan.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=british/>

===Habitat===
It grows on the clay soils of deserts.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/>

They can be found at an altitude of {{convert|1200|m}} above sea level.<ref name=british/>

==Cultivation==
It is [[Hardiness (plants)|hardy]] to areas with hot dry summers and very cold, nearly dry winters.
It could be cultivated in zones similar to N America and parts of Australia.<ref name=british/>

It is occasionally grown in the UK but it is rare,<ref name=british/><ref name=stebbings/><ref name=handbook/> also getting it to bloom is even rarer.<ref name=Harris/>

It shares a similar geographic range with the [[Regelia]] irises.<ref name=british/>

A specimen was sent to Paris Botanical Garden.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/>

==Toxicity==
Like many other irises, most parts of the plant are poisonous (rhizome and leaves), if mistakenly ingested can cause [[diarrhoea]], stomach pains and vomiting.<ref name=Goodman/>
The rhizome can also be toxic to domestic animals.<ref name=Goodman/>

==Uses==
''Iris falcifolia'' is used as a [[purgative]], an oil from the rhizomes was used as an ointment to treat [[rheumatism]].<ref name=crc/><ref name=Goodman/>

In Baluchistan (Pakistan), 10g of ground flowers (not just the pistils) are mixed with liquid yoghurt and then drunk in the mornings and evenings, as a herbal remedy for [[dysentery]].<ref name=Ratsch/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Other sources==
*Czerepanov, S. K. 1995. Vascular plants of Russia and adjacent states (the former USSR).
*Mathew, B. 1981. The Iris. 65–66.
*Nasir, E. & S. I. Ali, eds. 1970–. Flora of (West) Pakistan.
*Rechinger, K. H., ed. 1963–. Flora iranica.

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Iris falcifoliaa}}
*[http://www.wildbulbs.eu/iris.htm ''Iris falcifolia'' in South Tajikistan]
*{{Wikispecies-inline|Iris falcifolia}}

{{-}}
{{Iris subg. Iris}}

[[Category:Iris (plant)|falcifolia]]
[[Category:Flora of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Flora of Iran]]
[[Category:Flora of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Flora of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Flora of Tajikistan]]
[[Category:Flora of Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1851]]

Iris scariosa

2017-01-23T12:49:57Z

Rjwilmsi: /* Biochemistry */Journal cites, added 1 PMID using AWB (12142)

{{italic title}}{{taxobox
|name = Iris scariosa
|image = Iris scariosa curtis botanical garden image.jpg
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Monocots]]
|ordo = [[Asparagales]]
|familia = [[Iridaceae]]
|subfamilia = [[Iridoideae]]
|tribus = [[Irideae]]
|genus = ''[[Iris (plant)|Iris]]''
|subgenus = ''[[Iris subg. Iris|Iris]]''
|species = '''''Iris scariosa'''''
|binomial = ''Iris scariosa''
|binomial_authority = [[Karl Ludwig Willdenow|Willd.]] ex [[Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link|Link]]
|synonyms = {{Species list
|Iris astrachanica |Rodion.
|Iris biflora |Falk [Illegitimate]
|Iris elongata |Fisch. ex Baker
|Iris eulefeldii |Regel
|Iris pumila var. scariosa |(Willd. ex Link) Schmalh.
|Iris scariosa var. eulefeldii |(Regel) Maxim.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Iris scariosa Willd. ex Link is an accepted name
|date= 23 March 2012 |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-322355 |publisher=theplantlist.org ([[The Plant List]]) |accessdate=7 October 2015}}</ref>}}
}}
'''''Iris scariosa''''' is a species in the genus ''[[Iris (plant)|Iris]]'', it is also in the subgenus of [[Iris subg. Iris|Iris]]. It is a [[rhizomatous]] [[perennial plant|perennial]], from the mountainsides of [[Russia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Mongolia]] and [[China]]. It has sword-like, or sickle shaped, blue green or grey-green leaves, a short flowering stem, 3 or 4 membranous or semi-transparent flower bud leaves, 2 violet, reddish violet, lilac, blue-purple, or blue flowers in late spring, with yellow or white beards. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in [[temperateness|temperate]] regions. It was merged with another similar iris in the region, and ''[[Iris glaucescens]]'' became a synonym of ''Iris scariosa'', before being divided into two separate species again. Although some sources still call it the main species, despite a slight colour difference.

==Description==
It is similar in form to ''[[Iris pumila]]''.<ref name=onego>{{cite web |title=Bearded Irises (IRIS) Sem. Kasatikovye |url=http://flower.onego.ru/other/iris/iris_ir.html |publisher=flower.onego.ru |accessdate=5 September 2015}}</ref>

It has a yellow-white,<ref name=flph>{{cite web |title=Iris scariosa |url=http://www.flph.org/s/Irisscariosa |publisher=flph.org |accessdate=7 October 2015}}</ref> thick, fleshy rhizome,<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras>{{cite web |title=FOC Vol. 24 Page 310 |url=http://efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200028211 |publisher=efloras.org (Flora of China) |accessdate=6 October 2015}}</ref> that is between {{convert|1.2|-|2.2|cm|0|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=irisbotanique>{{cite web |title=Chapter I Rhizomatous Iris (part 2) |url=http://irisbotanique.over-blog.com/article-chapitre-i-les-iris-rhizomateux-partie-2-105950846.html |publisher=irisbotanique.over-blog.com |accessdate=14 September 2015}}</ref> Under the rhizome are secondary stolon-like roots.<ref name=irisbotanique/> On top of the rhizome, are the yellow-white,<ref name=flph/> fibrous remains of last seasons leaves.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=USSR>{{cite web|first=V.L. | last=Komarov | year=1935 | title=Akademiya Nauk SSSR (FLORA of the U.S.S.R.) Vol. IV | publisher=archive.org | url=https://archive.org/stream/floraofussr04bota/floraofussr04bota_djvu.txt | accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref> The creeping habit of the ground covering rhizomes,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=USSR/> makes small tufts of plants.<ref name=telp>{{cite web |first=Tom |last=Waters |title=A Hybridizer's Guide to Bearded Species |date=October 2010 |url=http://www.telp.com/irises/species.htm |publisher=telp.com |accessdate=26 September 2015}}</ref>

It has ensiform (sword-shaped),<ref name=flph/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=british>British Iris Society (1997) {{Google books|pL6uPLo7l2gC|A Guide to Species Irises: Their Identification and Cultivation|page=51}}</ref> sub-lanceolate,<ref name=USSR/> or falcate (sickle-shaped),<ref name=onego/><ref name=efloras/> blue-grey,<ref name=onego/><ref name=handbook>{{cite web |first=William |last=Dykes |authorlink=William Rickatson Dykes |title=Handbook of Garden Irises |year=2009 |url=http://www.beardlessiris.org/reviews/handbook%20of%20garden%20irises%20-%20dykes.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=beardlessiris.org (The Group for Beardless Irises) |accessdate=1 November 2014}}</ref> or grey-green leaves.<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/> They can grow up to between {{convert|10|-|18|cm|0|abbr=on}} long,<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=irisbotanique/> and between 1 and 1.8 cm wide.<ref name=flph/><ref name=british/> They are generally longer than the flowering stem.<ref name=USSR/><ref name=british/>

It has a flowering stem or [[Peduncle (botany)|peduncle]], that can grow up to between {{convert|10|-|20|cm|0|abbr=on}} tall.<ref name=british/><ref name=american>{{cite web |first=Alain |last=Franco |title=(SPEC) Iris scariosa Willd. |date=1 December 2013 |url=http://wiki.irises.org/bin/view/Spec/SpecScariosa |publisher=wiki.irises.org (American Iris Society)| accessdate=7 October 2015}}</ref><ref name=signa>{{cite web |first=D. |last=Kramb |title=Iris scariosa |date=30 November 2003 |url=http://www.signa.org/index.pl?Iris-scariosa |publisher=signa.org (Species Iris Group of North America) |accessdate=7 October 2015}}</ref> It is normally {{convert|15|cm|0|abbr=on}} tall.<ref name=onego/><ref name=USSR/><ref name=handbook/> The stems are leafless.<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/>

The stem has 3 or 4,<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=USSR/> thin,<ref name=telp/> lanceolate,<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=USSR/> [[Bract#Spathe|spathes]] (leaves of the flower bud), they are (scarious) membranous,<ref name=handbook/> and semi-transparent.<ref name=british/><ref name=European>James Cullen, Sabina G. Knees, H. Suzanne Cubey (Editors) {{Google books|CkxWrDqtWLQC|The European Garden Flora Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification (2011) |page=246}}</ref> They are {{convert|4|-|6|cm|0|abbr=on}} long,<ref name=onego/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=handbook/> and 1.5–2 cm wide.<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/> They have a reddish purple,<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/> or lilac margins.<ref name=USSR/>

It has a brown-purple,<ref name=handbook/> short [[perianth|perianth tube]], which is about 1.5–4 cm long,<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=handbook/> and slightly flared upward.<ref name=flph/><ref name=USSR/> It also has short [[Pedicel (botany)|pedicel]]s (flower stalks).<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=USSR/>

The stems hold 2,<ref name=british/><ref name=handbook/> terminal (top of stem) flowers, blooming in mid to late spring,<ref name=onego/><ref name=European/> between April to May,<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=USSR/> or May,<ref name=british/> or May to June.<ref name=annals>Houlston and Stoneman (Publisher){{Google books|Bl8CAAAAYAAJ|Annals of Horticulture and Year book of Information on Practical Gardening for 1847|page=76}}</ref>

The unscented,<ref name=onego/> flowers are {{convert|3.5|-|5.5|cm|0|abbr=on}} in diameter,<ref name=onego/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=European/> come in shades of violet,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=telp/><ref name=European/> reddish violet,<ref name=british/><ref name=handbook/><ref name=signa/> lilac,<ref name=USSR/> blue-purple,<ref name=onego/><ref name=flph/><ref name=irisbotanique/> or blue.<ref name=onego/><ref name=british/><ref name=annals/> Some sources also refer to rarely,<ref name=onego/> near white or yellow shaded flowers,<ref name=american/><ref name=signa/><ref name=European/> but these may, however only refer to ''[[Iris glaucescens]]''.<ref name=british/>

Like other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large [[sepals]] (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or [[tepals]]), known as the 'standards'.<ref name=ClaireAustin>{{cite book |first=Claire |last=Austin |title=Irises; A Garden Encyclopedia |year=2005 |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=0881927309 }}</ref>{{rp|17}} The falls are oblong,<ref name=USSR/> or obovate shaped,<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/> with a narrow claw (section near the stem).<ref name=flph/><ref name=USSR/> They are {{convert|4.5|-|6|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 1.5 cm wide.<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=European/> In the centre of each of the falls is a yellow 'beard' of hairs,<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/> but it can be sometime white on the blade (the wide part of the petal).<ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=USSR/><ref name=handbook/> The erect, oblanceolate shaped standards, are {{convert|3.5|-|5|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 0.5 cm wide.<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=European/>

It has 1.8 cm long stamens, 1.5 - 2.8 cm long ovary,<ref name=british/> that is fusiform (spindle shaped),<ref name=flph/> and a lavender or pale purple [[Stigma (botany)#Style|style branch]], that is 3.5 cm long.<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/>

After the iris has flowered, between mid to late summer,<ref name=onego/> or June to August,<ref name=efloras/> or June to July.<ref name=flph/> It produces an ovoid,<ref name=efloras/> or cylindrical spindle,<ref name=flph/> or oblong shaped seed capsule.<ref name=USSR/> Which is {{convert|5|-|7.5|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 2.5–3 cm in diameter.<ref name=flph/> It has 6 visible veins or ribs.<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=USSR/> The loculicidal (having compartments) capsule,<ref name=flph/> holds dark brown, round or elongated seeds, that are 4-5,5mm long and 2–3 mm wide.<ref name=onego/>

===Biochemistry===
In 1961, a study was carried out on various iris species in Russia, it found the chromosomal count of ''Iris scariosa'' was 2n=24.<ref name=Karyotypes>{{cite journal |last= Randolph |first=Lowell Fritz |author-link1=Lowell Fitz Randolph |last2=Mitra |first2=Jyotirmay |date=November 1961 |title=Karyotypes of Iris Species Indigenous to the USSR |jstor=2439526|journal=American Journal of Botany |publisher=Botanical Society of America |volume=48 |issue=10 |pages=862–870 |doi= 10.2307/2439526}}</ref>

In 2012, a genetic study was carried out on ''[[Iris laevigata]]'' and its from several closely related iris species, including ''[[Iris ensata]]'', ''[[Iris setosa]]'', ''[[Iris halophila]]'', ''Iris scariosa'', ''[[Iris potaninii]]'', ''[[Iris tenuifolia]]'', ''[[Iris bloudowii]]'', and ''[[Iris sanguinea]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sun |first=Ming-Zhou |last2=Li |first2=Ming-Rui |last3=Shi |first3=Feng-Xue |last4=Li |first4=Lin |last5=Liu |first5=Ying |last6=Li |first6=Lin-Feng |last7=Xiao |first7=Hong-Xing |date=July 2012 |title=Genomic and EST-derived microsatellite markers for Iris laevigata (Iridaceae) and other congeneric species |url=http://www.amjbot.org/content/99/7/e286.full |journal=American Journal of Botany |publisher= |volume=99 |issue=7 |pages=286–288 |doi=10.3732/ajb.1100608 |accessdate=5 May 2015 |pmid=22739712}}</ref>

As most irises are [[diploid]], having two sets of [[chromosomes]], this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.<ref name=ClaireAustin/>{{rp|18}}
''Iris scariosa'' has a chromosome count: 2n=24.<ref name=onego/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=signa/> Although one source also mentions 2n=40.<ref name=signa/>

==Taxonomy==
[[File:Iris scariosa curtis botanical garden image.jpg|thumb|Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, vol. 112 (ser. 3, vol. 42) 6902 (1886) Drawn by [[Matilda Smith]]]]
It is written as 膜苞鸢尾 in [[Chinese characters|Chinese script]], and known as ''mo bao yuan wei'' in [[Pidgin]].<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=grin>{{cite web |title=Taxon: Iris scariosa Willd. ex Link |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?428604 |publisher=ars-grin.gov ([[Germplasm Resources Information Network]]) |accessdate= 7 October 2015}}</ref>

It is commonly known as 'Film bud Iris' or 'Membrane bud Iris (in China).<ref name=flph/><ref name=zhiwutong>{{cite web |title=Film Bud Iris |url=http://www.zhiwutong.com/latin/Iridaceae/Iris-scariosa-Willd-ex-Link.htm |publisher=zhiwutong.com |accessdate= 9 October 2015}}</ref> It is also known as 'Iris leathery' in Russia.<ref name=onego/><ref name=zaglyanut>{{cite web |title=The exhibition "Iris Russia" |url=http://flower-iris.ru/en/knigi-pro-iridariy/zaglyanut-v-knigu/66/ |publisher=flower-iris.ru |accessdate=8 October 2015}}</ref><ref name=calc>{{cite web |first=G. I. |last=Rodionenko |title=Iris (Iris) leathery |url=http://www.calc.ru/krasnaya-kniga/Kasatik-(iris)-Kozhistiy.html |publisher=calc.ru |accessdate=8 October 2015}}</ref> It was known in UK as the 'Scarious iris'.<ref name=annals/>

The Latin [[Botanical name#Binary name|specific epithet]] ''scariosa'' refers to shrivelled, or thin dry organs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stearn |first=William |year=1973 |edition=Revised |publication-date=1963 |title=A Gardenerer's Dictionary of Plant Names |url= |location=London |publisher=Cassell |page=285 |isbn=0304937215 }}</ref> This refers to the membranous bracts or spathes, under the flowers.

It was originally described from specimens collected from near to the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref name=american/>

It was first described by [[Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link]] and then published by [[Karl Ludwig Willdenow]] (using Link's description of the plant), in 'Jahrbücher der Gewächskunde' (of Berlin and Leipzig, Jahrb. Gewächsk.) Vol.1 Issue3, page71 in 1820.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=american/>
<ref>{{cite web |title=Iridaceae Iris scariosa Willd. ex Link |url=http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idPlantNameSearch.do?id=439072-1 |publisher=ipni.org (International Plant Names Index) |accessdate=7 October 2015}}</ref>

It was later published by [[Carl Friedrich von Ledebour|Carl Ledebour]] in 'Fl Ross' Vol.4 page104 in 1853,<ref name=flph/> then in 'Gartenflora' Vol.27 page325 in 1878, with a colour illustration (labelled as ''Iris eulefeldi'').<ref name=american/> then by [[Carl Maximowicz|Maxim]] in 'Bull Acad Sci St. Petersb' Vol.26 page534 in 1880 and by [[Boris Fedtschenko]] in 'Kom Fl URSS' Vol.4 page550 in 1935.<ref name=flph/>

An illustration of the iris by [[Matilda Smith]] was published in [[Curtis’s Botanical Magazine]], vol. 112 [ser. 3, vol. 42] no.6902 in 1886.<ref>{{cite web |title=Curtis’s Botanical Magazine]], vol. 112 [ser. 3, vol. 42] t.6902 in 1886) [M. Smith] |url=http://plantillustrations.org/illustration.php?id_illustration=4375&mobile=0&code_category_taxon= |publisher=plantillustrations.org |accessdate=8 October 2015}}</ref>

In 1979, Shevchenko (Iris L. in A.I. Galushko (edited) 'Flora Severnogo Kavkaza' Vol.3 page79, [[Southern Federal University|University of Rostov]]) divided ''Iris glaucescens'' and ''Iris scariosa'' into 2 separate species.<ref name=american/><ref name=pacific>{{cite web |title=Iris summary |date=14 April 2014 |url=http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/files/Iris/Iris_Summary.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=pacificbulbsociety.org |accessdate=23 November 2014}}</ref> He thought that there was several morphological and ecological differences between the 2 species. But he did not publish these. Also he noted that the ''Iris scariosa'' distribution range was limited to west of the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref name=british/> But this range classification is disputed by other authors, although most sources still split the two irises into separate species.

It was verified by [[United States Department of Agriculture]] and the [[Agricultural Research Service]] on 2 October 2014.<ref name=grin/>

It is listed in the [[Encyclopedia of Life]].<ref name=eol>{{cite web |title=Iris scariosa |url=http://eol.org/pages/2898086/overview |publisher=eol.org |accessdate=7 October 2015}}</ref>

''Iris scariosa'' is not yet an accepted name by the [[Royal Horticultural Society|RHS]].

==Distribution and habitat==
It is [[native plant|native]] to temperate central Asia,<ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=telp/> and eastern Europe (meaning Russia).<ref name=grin/><ref name=calc/>

===Range===
It is found in Russia,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=annals/> (within [[Kalmykia]],<ref name=calc/><ref>{{cite web |first=N.M. |last=Baktasheva |title=Biological Features And Structure Of Natural Tcenopopuljatcij Iris Scariosa Willd.Ex Link In The Republic Of Kalmykia |date=2013 |url=http://rucont.ru/efd/303894 |publisher=rucont.ru |accessdate=8 October 2015}}</ref> [[Bashkortostan]] and [[Siberia]],<ref name=USSR/>),<ref name=grin/> Kazakhstan,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=Karyotypes/><ref name=greentours>{{cite web |title=Tulips In The Tien Shan |url=http://www.greentours.co.uk/Asia/TULIPS-IN-THE-TIEN-SHAN-12/ |publisher=greentours.co.uk |accessdate=8 October 2015}}</ref> Mongolia,<ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=USSR/> and China (within the [[Provinces of China|provinces]] of [[Xinjiang]],<ref name=zhiwutong/>).<ref name=efloras/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=grin/>

The distribution stretches from the [[Ural Mountains]], (above the Caspian Sea,<ref name=handbook/> including along the [[Volta River]],<ref name=signa/>) eastwards to the [[Tien Shan Mountains]],<ref name=telp/><ref name=signa/><ref name=European/> and Altai Mountain range.<ref name=onego/><ref name=handbook/>

In Kazakhstan, it can be found on the Sugaty Plateau of the Ketmen Mountains with ''[[Tulipa iliensis]]''.<ref name="greentours"/>

In China, it is found on the [[Tarbagatai Mountains]] and Maili mountains, with other plant species including; ''[[Fritillaria yuminensis]]'', ''[[Paeonia hybrida]]'' Pall., ''[[Corydalis nobilis]]'' Pers., the cowslip ''[[Primula veris subsp. macrocalyx|Primula veris L. subsp. macrocalyx]]'' (Bunge), ''[[Glaucium squamigerum]]'' Kar. & Kir. and ''[[Chelidonium majus var grandiflorum|Chelidonium majus L. var grandiflorum]]'' Willd.<ref>{{cite web |first=Christine |last=Leon |first2=Michael F. |last2=Fay |first3=Martyn |last3=Rix |title=637. FRITILLARIA YUMINENSIS Liliaceae, Curtis’s Botanical Magazine 2009 vol. 26 (1&2): pp. 21–32 |date=2009 |url=http://www.kew.org/science/ecbot/papers/leon2009fritillaria.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=12 October 2015}}</ref>

===Habitat===
It grows on the alkaline and dry,<ref name=calc/> sunny, open stony hillsides,<ref name=USSR/> beside ditches,<ref name=flph/><ref name=efloras/> and in desert-like [[steppes]].<ref name=USSR/><ref name=calc/>

They can be found at an altitude of {{convert|1500|-|2400|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level.<ref name=onego/><ref name=irisbotanique/>

==Conservation==
It is listed as V (for vulnerable),<ref name=zaglyanut/><ref name=calc/> in the [[Red Data Book of the Russian Federation|Red Book of the Russian Federation]], (within the Stavropol and [[Rostov Oblast|Rostov]] regions).<ref name=zaglyanut/>

One colony of plants is within the [[Astrakhan Nature Reserve]].<ref name=zaglyanut/><ref name=calc/>

It is limited in habitat, due to intensive grazing of the land.<ref name=calc/>

==Cultivation==
It is [[Hardiness (plants)|hardy]] in Europe to Zone H2,<ref name=European/> meaning hardy to -15 to-20oC (5 to -4oF).<ref>{{cite web |title=Plant Hardiness |url=http://theseedsite.co.uk/hardiness.html |publisher=theseedsite.co |accessdate=3 August 2015}}</ref> It has been tested for hardiness in Russia, in the botanical gardens of Moscow, [[Stavropol|Stavrapole]], and St. Petersburg. It was only cold resistant in Stavrapole.<ref name=onego/><ref name=zaglyanut/><ref name=calc/>

In 1946, it was first introduced to the [[Moscow Botanical Garden of Academy of Sciences]], but showed unstable results, it did not bloom annually, or fruit and suffers in the winter.<ref name=zaglyanut/>

It prefers to grow in well drained soils in full sun.<ref name=irisbotanique/>

It does not like waterlogged soils, that can damage the rhizomes,<ref name=irisbotanique/> but has high drought and salt tolerance.<ref name=onego/> So could be used in p

It can be grown in rock gardens.<ref name=onego/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=zaglyanut/>

It is only collected and cultivated by iris specialists.<ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=telp/>

It is cultivated in the botanical gardens of [[Almaty]], [[Barnaul]], [[Dzhezkazgan]], [[Karagandy]], [[Kiev]], [[Leningrad]], Moscow, [[Omsk]] and [[Sverdlovsk, Ukraine|Sverdlovsk]].<ref name=calc/>

===Propagation===
Irises can generally be propagated by [[Division (horticulture)|division]],<ref>{{cite web |title=How to divide iris rhizomes |url=http://www.gardenersworld.com/how-to/projects/propagating/how-to-divide-iris-rhizomes/169.html |publisher=gardenersworld.com |accessdate=12 October 2015}}</ref> or by seed growing.<ref name=calc/>

===Hybrids and Cultivars===
Due to its high drought and salt tolerance, it would be useful or interesting in plant breeding programmes.<ref name=onego/>
As a diploid iris, it is unlikely to produce fertile offspring in crosses to other types of iris.<ref name=telp/> So it has not been used.<ref name=zaglyanut/>

==Toxicity==
Like many other irises, most parts of the plant are poisonous (rhizome and leaves), if mistakenly ingested can cause stomach pains and vomiting. Also handling the plant may cause a skin irritation or an allergic reaction.<ref>David G Spoerke and Susan C. Smolinske{{Google books|a7-f66fRfzQC|Toxicity of Houseplants|page=236}}</ref>

==Uses==
In China, the rhizome of ''Iris scariosa'' has been used to treat [[swollen gums]],<ref name=zhiwutong/> [[anti-inflammatory]] pains, also [[sore throat]] (or chronic [[pharyngitis]],<ref name=zhiwutong/>) and [[hoarseness]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Iris scariosa |url=http://baike.baidu.com/view/1409750.htm |publisher=baike.baidu.com |accessdate=7 October 2015}}</ref> The rhizome was ground into a powder, then mixed with honey.<ref name=zhiwutong/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Other sources==
* Czerepanov, S. K. 1995. Vascular plants of Russia and adjacent states (the former USSR).
* Khassanov, F. O. & N. Rakhimova. 2012. Taxonomic revision of the genus Iris L. (Iridaceae Juss.) for the flora of Central Asia. Stapfia 97:177.
* Komarov, V. L. et al., eds. 1934–1964. Flora SSSR.
* Mathew, B. 1981. The Iris. 34.
* Waddick, J. W. & Zhao Yu-tang. 1992. Iris of China.
* Wu Zheng-yi & P. H. Raven et al., eds. 1994–. Flora of China (English edition).

==External links==
* [http://prairiebreak.blogspot.co.uk/2014/04/three-irises-of-altai.html Has images of ''[[Iris ruthenica]]'', ''[[Iris humilis]]'' and ''Iris scariosa'' from the Altai Mountains]
* [http://kazakhsteppe.com/en/photo/230 Has an image of clump of the iris in Kazakhstan]
* [http://molbiol.ru/pictures/80337.html Images of the iris in China]

{{Commons category-inline|Iris scariosa}}
{{Wikispecies-inline|Iris scariosa}}

[[Category:Iris (plant)|scariosa]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1820]]
[[Category:Poisonous plants]]
[[Category:Flowers]]
[[Category:Garden plants]]
[[Category:Flora of Central Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Flora of Russia]]
[[Category:Flora of Siberia]]
[[Category:Flora of Mongolia]]
[[Category:Flora of China]]

Iris bloudowii

2017-01-23T12:37:50Z

Rjwilmsi: /* Biochemistry */Journal cites, added 1 PMID using AWB (12142)

{{italic title}}{{taxobox
|name = Iris bloudowii
|image =
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Monocots]]
|ordo = [[Asparagales]]
|familia = [[Iridaceae]]
|subfamilia = [[Iridoideae]]
|tribus = [[Irideae]]
|genus = ''[[Iris (plant)|Iris]]''
|subgenus = ''[[Iris subg. Iris|Iris]]''
|sectio = ''Psammiris''
|species = '''''Iris bloudowii'''''
|binomial = ''Iris bloudowii''
|binomial_authority = [[Carl Friedrich von Ledebour|Ledebour]]
|synonyms = {{Species list
| Iris flavissima var. bloudowii |(Ledeb.) Baker
| Iris flavissima var. umbrosa |Bunge <ref>{{cite web |title=Iris bloudowii Ledeb. is an accepted name |date= 23 March 2013 |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-321630 |publisher=theplantlist.org ([[The Plant List]]) |accessdate=29 April 2015}}</ref>}}
}}
'''''Iris bloudowii''''' is a species in the genus ''[[Iris (plant)|Iris]]'', it is also in the subgenus of [[Iris subg. Iris|Iris]] and in the ''Psammiris'' section. It is a [[rhizomatous]] [[perennial plant|perennial]], from [[Russia]], [[Siberia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Mongolia]] and [[China]], with sickle-shaped leaves, slender stem and 2 bright or pale yellow flowers. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in [[temperateness|temperate]] regions.

==Description==
It is similar in form to ''[[Iris humilis]]'' (another Psammiris species).<ref name=american>{{cite web |first=Alain |last= Franco |title=(SPEC) Iris bloudowii Bunge |date=4 December 2013 |url=http://wiki.irises.org/bin/view/Spec/SpecBloudowii |publisher=wiki.irises.org (American Iris Society)| accessdate=29 April 2015}}</ref>

It has a thick, short, irregularly shaped, fibrous rhizome.<ref name=efloras>{{cite web |title=FOC Vol. 24 Page 309 |url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200028153 |publisher=efloras (Flora of China) |accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref><ref name=onego>{{cite web |title=Irises Psammiris |url=http://flower.onego.ru/other/iris/iris_hum.html |publisher=flower.onego.ru |accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref><ref name=irisbotanique>{{cite web |title=Chapter I (Part 6) Psammiris |url=http://irisbotanique.over-blog.com/categorie-0.html&usg=ALkJrhh70LNmXSsW7XWSPOAq9g9rjg4IpQ |publisher=irisbotanique.over-blog.com |accessdate=2 May 2015}}</ref><ref name=british>British Iris Society (1997) {{Google books|pL6uPLo7l2gC|A Guide to Species Irises: Their Identification and Cultivation|page=58}}</ref> They are {{convert|0.5|-|1.5|cm|0|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref name=agbina>{{cite web |title=Bludova Iris (Iris bloudowii) |url=http://www.agbina.com/site.xp/053051050124052052055.html |publisher=agbina.com |accessdate=1 May 2015}}</ref> Under the rhizome, are numerous yellow-white, secondary roots.<ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=csdb>{{cite web |title=Central Iris Iris bloudowii Ledeb. |url=http://www.plants.csdb.cn/eflora/View/Search/chs_contents.aspx%3FCPNI%3DCPNI-252-06653&usg=ALkJrhh_pUr3QVolTR5xMLyDez3VyrozdA |publisher=plants.csdb.cn |accessdate=1 May 2015}}</ref> On top of the rhizome, are the brown, fibrous remains of old leaves.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=onego/><ref name=british/><ref name=csdb/> The rhizome has many branches, creating a slowly, creeping plant.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=plantae>{{cite web |title=Iris bloudowii |url=http://wiki.plantae.se/index.php/Iris_bloudowii |publisher=wiki.plantae.se |accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref>

It has 2-4,<ref name=onego/> linear,<ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=agbina/><ref name=plantae/> or lanceolate,<ref name=onego/><ref name=plantae/> or sword-shaped basal leaves,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=csdb/> They are slightly curved or sickle-shaped.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=onego/><ref name=csdb/>
They appear in spring, as broad, brown shoots,<ref name=handbook>{{cite web |first=William |last=Dykes |authorlink=William Rickatson Dykes |title=Handbook of Garden Irises |year=2009 |url=http://www.beardlessiris.org/reviews/handbook%20of%20garden%20irises%20-%20dykes.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=beardlessiris.org (The Group for Beardless Irises) |accessdate=1 November 2014}}</ref> before turning greyish green,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=british/><ref name=csdb/> or light green,<ref name=human>{{cite web |title=Wintering Perennials |url=http://humangarden.ru/bd/novosad/novosad.php?id_rast=274 |publisher=humangarden.ru |accessdate=1 May 2015}}</ref> they can grow up to between {{convert|8|-|12|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 4–8 mm wide, at blooming time.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/> Later, they extend up to between {{convert|15|-|25|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 8–13 mm wide.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=onego/><ref name=british/><ref name=agbina/><ref name=csdb/><ref name=handbook/>
They have 5-6 longitudinal veins, but no central mid-vein.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/><ref name=signa>{{cite web |first=D. |last=Kramb |title=Iris bloudowii |date=14 September 2004 |url=http://www.signa.org/index.pl?Iris-bloudowii |publisher=signa.org (Species Iris Group of North America) |accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref>
The leaves are deciduous, and die away after flowering.<ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=handbook/>

It has a slender, erect stem, that can reach up to between {{convert|8|-|10|cm|0|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/> After flowering, the stem extends up to {{convert|35|cm|0|abbr=on}} long.<ref name="american"/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=onego/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=agbina/><ref name=csdb/><ref name=plantae/><ref name=human/><ref name=signa/><ref name=daves/><ref name=cassidy>{{cite book |last1=Cassidy |first1=George E.| last2=Linnegar | first2=Sidney | date=1987 |edition=Revised | title= Growing Irises |location=Bromley | publisher=Christopher Helm | page=125 | isbn=0-88192-089-4}}</ref><ref name=pacific>{{cite web |title=Iris summary |date=14 April 2014 |url=http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/files/Iris/Iris_Summary.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=pacificbulbsociety.org |accessdate=23 November 2014}}</ref><ref name=korni>{{cite web |title=Iris Bludova |url=http://www.oookorni.ru/Details/Iris-bludova.html |publisher=oookorni.ru |accessdate=1 May 2015}}</ref><ref name=rainbow>{{cite web |title=Rainbow |date=9 December 2014 |url=http://wdtns.ru/?p=586 |publisher=wdtns.ru |accessdate=24 January 2015}}</ref> It is not branched and carries the flowers above the foliage.<ref name=american/><ref name=csdb/>

The stem has 2 or 3, keeled, oblong-lanceolate, reddish purple, membranous, [[spathe]]s or [[bracts]] (leaves of the flower bud).<ref name=american/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/><ref name=plantae/><ref name=handbook/> They are {{convert|4|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and 1.6–2 cm wide.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/><ref name=handbook/>

The stems hold 2 terminal (top of stem) flowers,<ref name=american/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=onego/><ref name=agbina/><ref name=csdb/><ref name=plantae/><ref name=handbook/><ref name=signa/><ref name=cassidy/><ref name=rainbow/> blooming in late spring,<ref name=stebbings>{{cite book |last=Stebbings |first=Geoff |year=1997|title=The Gardener's Guide to Growing Irises |url= |location=Newton Abbot |publisher=David and Charles |page=16 |isbn=0715305395 }}</ref> between April and May,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=agbina/><ref name=csdb/><ref name=human/> or June (in Russia).<ref name=onego/> The flowers are held on [[pedicels]] (stalks) that are 0.5–2 cm long.<ref name=american/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/>

The flowers are {{convert|5|-|6|cm|0|abbr=on}} in diameter,<ref name=american/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=agbina/><ref name=csdb/> come in shades of yellow,<ref name=onego/><ref name=agbina/><ref name=human/><ref name=pacific/><ref name=korni/><ref name=rainbow/><ref name=stebbings/> from bright yellow,<ref name=american/><ref name=handbook/><ref name=daves>{{cite web |title=Iris bloudowii |url=http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/171458/#b |publisher=davesgarden.com |accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref> to clear yellow,<ref name=csdb/><ref name=cassidy/> to dark yellow.<ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=signa/>

It has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large [[sepals]] (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or [[tepals]]), known as the 'standards'.<ref name=ClaireAustin>{{cite book |first=Claire |last=Austin |title=Irises; A Garden Encyclopedia |year=2005 |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=0881927309 }}</ref>
The falls are obovate,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=onego/><ref name=csdb/> or ovate,<ref name=plantae/> with purple or brown veins,<ref name=onego/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=plantae/><ref name=signa/><ref name=daves/><ref name=cassidy/><ref name=pacific/> leading to the haft (the section closest to the stem),<ref name=american/> and have a central yellow,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=signa/><ref name=pacific/> or golden beard.<ref name=csdb/><ref name=cassidy/> They are 4 cm long and 2 cm wide.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/> The upright standards are oblanceolate and 3-4.5 cm long and 1-1.2 cm wide.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/> They are narrower and shorter than the falls.<ref name=plantae/>

It has a 1-1.5 cm long perianth tube,<ref name=american/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/> which is equal in length to the green, spindle-shaped,<ref name=csdb/> ovary.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=onego/> The ovary also has 6 purple stripes.<ref name=american/> The plant also has {{convert|1.8|-|2.2|cm|0|abbr=on}} long stamens,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/> and bright yellow style branches that are flat and 2.5 cm long.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/>

After the iris has flowered, between June and August,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=onego/><ref name=csdb/> it produces an oval or ovoid seed capsule,<ref name=efloras/>
on a 1-1.2 cm long stalk.<ref name=onego/><ref name=csdb/> Inside are dark brown, ellipsoid or oval seeds, which are 5mm long and 3mm wide.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=onego/><ref name=csdb/> They are wrinkled and have a white aril (appendage).<ref name=efloras/><ref name=onego/><ref name=csdb/>

===Biochemistry===
In 1986, a study was carried out on 3 iris species in China, the chromosomes of ''[[Iris mandshurica]], ''[[Iris uniflora]]'' and ''Iris bloudowii'' were counted. Iris bloudowii had a count of 2n=26.<ref name=karyotype>{{cite journal |last= Yutang |first=Zhao |last2=Jingmei |first2= Lu |date=February 1986 |title=Karyotype Studies Of 3 Species Of Genus Iris In China |url=http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-DBSZ198602008.htm |journal=Journal of Northeast Normal University |publisher= |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi= |accessdate=5 May 2015}}</ref>

In 2005, a study was carried out on ''Iris bloudowii''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ning |first=Li |last2=YuZhi |first2=Dong |last3=FengLi |first3=Liang |date=2005 |title=Studies on microsporogenesis and the formation of male gametophyte (plant cell) in Iris bloudowii. |url=http://eurekamag.com/research/004/476/004476873.php |journal=Bulletin of Botanical Research |publisher= |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=140–143 |doi= |accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref>

In 2012, a genetic study was carried out on ''[[Iris laevigata]]'' and its from several closely related iris species, including ''[[Iris ensata]]'', ''[[Iris setosa]]'', ''[[Iris halophila]]'', ''[[Iris scariosa]]'', ''[[Iris potaninii]]'', ''[[Iris tenuifolia]]'', ''Iris bloudowii'', and ''[[Iris sanguinea]]''.
<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sun |first=Ming-Zhou |last2=Li |first2=Ming-Rui |last3=Shi |first3=Feng-Xue |last4=Li |first4=Lin |last5=Liu |first5=Ying |last6=Li |first6=Lin-Feng |last7=Xiao |first7=Hong-Xing |date=July 2012 |title=Genomic and EST-derived microsatellite markers for Iris laevigata (Iridaceae) and other congeneric species |url=http://www.amjbot.org/content/99/7/e286.full |journal=American Journal of Botany |publisher= |volume=99 |issue=7 |pages=286–288 |doi=10.3732/ajb.1100608 |accessdate=5 May 2015 |pmid=22739712}}</ref>

As most irises are [[diploid]], having two sets of [[chromosomes]], this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.<ref name=ClaireAustin/>
It has been counted several times, 2n=22 ([[Marc Simonet]], 1934), 2n=22 ([[Lowell Fitz Randolph|Randolph]], 1947), 2n=26 (Simonet, 1952) and 2n=26 (Doronkin, 1984).<ref name=american/> 
It is commonly published as 2n=22, 26,<ref name=signa/><ref name=pacific/> or 2n = 26.<ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=karyotype/>

== Taxonomy==
It has the common names of 'Bludov iris' or 'Bludova iris' (in Russia).<ref name=onego/><ref name=human/><ref name=korni/><ref>{{cite web |first=Olga |last=Kuznetsova |title=Iris bloudowii |date=19 January 2015 |url=http://mycoweb.ru/Notes/Iris_bloudowii_Ledeb.html |publisher=mycoweb.ru |accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref> It was also known as 'Blondow's Iris',<ref>{{Google Books|Bl8CAAAAYAAJ|Annals of Horticulture|page=73}}</ref> due to a spelling translation mistake.

It is written as 中亚鸢尾 in [[Chinese characters|Chinese script]],<ref name=efloras/> and known as ''zhong ya yuan wei'' in [[Pidgin]] in China.<ref name=efloras/><ref name=grin>{{cite web |title=Taxon: Iris bloudowii Bunge |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?428613 |publisher=ars-grin.gov ([[Germplasm Resources Information Network]]) |accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref> 'Zhong ya yuan wei' is translated into English as 'central Asian iris',<ref name=grin/> or 'central iris'.<ref name=csdb/>

The Latin [[Botanical name#Binary name|specific epithet]] ''bloudowii'' refers to von Bloudow, (or [[Dmitry Bludov|Count Dmitri N. Bludova]], 1785 – 1864<ref>{{cite web |title=President of the Academy of Sciences |url=https://www.ras.ru/presidents/28331381-be50-4315-872e-88f22c6c8e34.aspx |publisher=ras.ru |accessdate=5 May 2015}}</ref> ) a former President of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] (founded in [[Saint Petersburg]]).<ref name=handbook/>

It was first published and described by [[Carl Friedrich von Ledebour]] in 'Icones Plantarum' (Icon. Pl.) Vol.2 page5 in 1830.<ref name=efloras/><ref>{{cite web |title=Iris bloudowii Ledeb. |url=http://plantillustrations.org/species.php?id_species=558099&lay_out=1&hd=0 |publisher=plantillustrations.org |accessdate=1 May 2015}}</ref><ref name=kew>{{cite web |title=Iris bloudowii Ledeb., Icon. Pl. 2: 5 (1830) |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=321630 |publisher=kew.org |accessdate=29 April 2015}}</ref><ref name=alekseeva>{{cite web |first=N.B. |last=Alekseeva |title=The history of the introduction of wild species of Iris (Iridaceae) flora Russia (Botanical Institute Komarov Academy of Sciences St Petersburg) |url= http://www.binran.ru/files/publications/Proceedings/Proceedings_300-years/Proceedings_300-years_Alexeeva.pdf |publisher=binran.ru |accessdate=2 May 2015}}</ref>

The type specimen for description was collected from the [[Altai Mountains]].<ref name=csdb/><ref name=alekseeva/>

It was also published in 'Flora Altaica', Volume 4 page 331 in 1833.<ref name=american/><ref name=grin/><ref>Carl Friedrich von Ledebour {{Google books|OZcCAAAAYAAJ|'Flora Altaica', Volume 4|page=14}}</ref> Then in February 2007, [[Brian Mathew]], published an article in [[Curtis's Botanical Magazine]] Volume 24, Issue 1, pages 30–33.<ref>{{cite web |title=Curtis's Botanical Magazine |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8748.2007.00556.x/abstract |publisher=onlinelibrary.wiley.com |accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref>

It was verified by [[United States Department of Agriculture]] and the [[Agricultural Research Service]] on 2 October 2014.<ref name=grin/>

''Iris bloudowii'' is an accepted name by the [[Royal Horticultural Society|RHS]].<ref name=rhs>{{cite web|title=Iris bloudowii |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/22902/Iris-bloudowii/Details |publisher=www.rhs.org.uk| accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
''Iris bloudowii'' is [[native plant|native]] to temperate regions of central Asia.<ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=agbina/><ref name=plantae/><ref name=signa/><ref name=grin/><ref name=kew/><ref name=rhs/>

===Range===
It is found within the [[Siberia]]n region,<ref name=american/><ref name=onego/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=british/><ref name=agbina/><ref name=plantae/><ref name=pacific/><ref name=kew/><ref name=dykesonirises>{{cite web| first=William | last=Dykes |title=Dykes on Iris| url=http://www.beardlessiris.org/reviews/dykes%20on%20irises%20-%20part1.pdf |publisher=beardlessiris.org (The Group for Beardless Irises) | accessdate=21 November 2014}}</ref> of the [[Russian Federation]],<ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/><ref name=handbook/><ref name=rhs/> in the states of [[Aga Buryatia|Aga Buryat]], [[Buryatia]], [[Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai|Chita]], [[Gorno-Altay]], [[Irkutsk]], [[Krasnoyarsk]], [[Tuva]] and [[Primorye]].<ref name=grin/> It is also found in [[Kazakhstan]],<ref name=onego/><ref>{{cite web |title=Three irises of the Altai |date=26 April 2014 |url=http://prairiebreak.blogspot.co.uk/2014/04/three-irises-of-altai.html |publisher=prairebreak.blogspot.co.uk |accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref> and [[Mongolia]].<ref name=american/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=british/><ref name=agbina/><ref name=plantae/><ref name=signa/><ref name=pacific/><ref name=grin/><ref name=kew/>
It is also found in China,<ref name=american/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=british/><ref name=plantae/><ref name=signa/><ref name=pacific/> within the [[Provinces of China|Chinese provinces]], of [[Xinjiang]],<ref name=csdb/><ref name=grin/> (also known as 'Chinese Turkestan').<ref name=handbook/><ref name=cassidy/>

This includes the [[Altai Mountains]],<ref name=handbook/><ref name=signa/><ref name=cassidy/><ref name=greentours>{{cite web| url=http://www.greentours.co.uk/Asia/THE-ALTAI/ | title=THE ALTAI, CENTRAL ASIA'S GOLDEN MOUNTAINS | publisher=greentours.co.uk | accessdate=5 November 2014}}</ref> and [[Tien Shan Mountains]].<ref name=american/><ref name=british/><ref name=pacific/>

It is listed with ''[[Iris glaucescens]]'', ''[[Iris humilis]]'', ''[[Iris ruthenica]]'', ''[[Iris sibirica]]'', ''[[Iris tenuifolia]]'' and ''[[Iris tigridia]]'' being found in the [[Altai-Sayan region]] (where Russia, China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan come together).<ref>{{cite web |title=Biodiversity of Altai-Sayan Ecoregion |url=http://www.bioaltai-sayan.ru/regnum/eng/species_all.php?right=box-spec-p/iris.php |publisher=bioaltai-sayan.ru |accessdate=15 August 2015}}</ref>

===Habitat===
It grows on the grassy meadow slopes of mountains,<ref name=american/><ref name=efloras/><ref name=onego/><ref name=agbina/><ref name=csdb/><ref name=signa/> on the edge of woods and forests,<ref name=american/><ref name=onego/><ref name=csdb/> in sandy dunes,<ref name=efloras/><ref name=csdb/> and coastal meadows.<ref name=onego/>

It prefers sandy soils similar to ''Iris humilis''.<ref name=american/>

==Cultivation==
It is [[Hardiness (plants)|hardy]] to between [[USDA]] Zone 4 to Zone 9.<ref name=daves/>

It is very cold hardy but prefers dry winter conditions.<ref name=american/>

It prefers to be grown in well-drained, light sandy soils.<ref name=american/><ref name=agbina/> It can grow in gravelly soils.<ref name=rainbow/>

It can tolerate mildly acidic or mildly alkaline soils (PH levels between 6.1 and 7.8).<ref name=daves/><ref name=rainbow/>

It can tolerate positions in full sun.<ref name=american/><ref name=daves/>

It has average water needs during the growing season,<ref name=daves/> but it should be kept dry during the winter.<ref name=american/><ref name=cassidy/>

In the UK, it is best grown in a covered frame,<ref name=handbook/><ref name=cassidy/> but it can grown in the open in Russia.<ref name=onego/>
It is rare in cultivation in the UK.<ref name=stebbings/>

It is grown in rock gardens.<ref name=rainbow/>

It has been grown in Russia since 1829. It was tested in botanical gardens of [[Moscow]], St. Petersburg, [[Novosibirsk]], [[Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai|Chita]] and [[Barnaul]].<ref name=onego/><ref name=rainbow/><ref name=alekseeva/>

''[[Aphis newtoni]]'' Theobald can be found on ''Iris bloudowii'', ''[[Iris latifolia]]'', ''[[Iris spuria]]'' and ''[[Tigridia pavonia]]''.<ref>Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences, Biology and Ecology June 2002 {{Google books|MUIohJLKGOYC|Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences, Biology and Ecology June 2002|page=128}}</ref>

===Propagation===
It can be propagated by [[Division (horticulture)|division]] or by seed growing.<ref name=agbina/><ref name=daves/>

In 2003, a study was carried out on pollinating and germinating seeds of ''Iris bloudowii''. It was concluded that if the pollination was around 12:00 in the morning. It is self-incompatibile.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dong |first=Yuzho |last2=Zan |first2=Shaoping |last3=Ning |first3= Li |last4=Wei |first4=Wu |last5=Lin |first5=Zhang |date=2003 |title=The Pollen Living Ability and Pollination of Iris bloudowii |url=http://europepmc.org/abstract/CBA/546479 |journal=Journal of Northeast Forestry University |publisher= |volume=31 |issue=6 |pages=78–79 |doi= |accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref>

===Hybrids and Cultivars===
''Iris bloudowii'' is rarely used in hybridizing, but a cross with ''[[Iris lutescens]]'' called 'Promise' was successful.<ref name=american/>
It also has 2 cultivars, 'Bloudowii Rupestris' and 'Bloudowii Turkestanica'.<ref name=american/>

==Toxicity==
Like many other irises, most parts of the plant are poisonous (rhizome and leaves), if mistakenly ingested can cause stomach pains and vomiting. Also handling the plant may cause a skin irritation or an allergic reaction.<ref name=daves/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Other sources==
* Czerepanov, S. K. 1995. Vascular plants of Russia and adjacent states (the former USSR).
* Khassanov, F. O. & N. Rakhimova. 2012. Taxonomic revision of the genus Iris L. (Iridaceae Juss.) for the flora of Central Asia. Stapfia 97:177.
* Komarov, V. L. et al., eds. 1934–1964. Flora SSSR. [lists as I. bloudowi Bunge].
* Mathew, B. 1981. The Iris. 39.
* Waddick, J. W. & Zhao Yu-tang. 1992. Iris of China.

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Iris bloudowii}}
*[http://bruset.net/2013/06/iris-bloudowii/comment-page-1/ Two photos of Iris bloudowii in flower in the Altai Mountains]
*{{Wikispecies-inline|Iris bloudowii}}

{{Clear}}
{{Iris subg. Iris}}

[[Category:Iris (plant)|bloudowii]]
[[Category:Flora of China]]
[[Category:Flora of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Flora of Mongolia]]
[[Category:Flora of Russia]]
[[Category:Flora of Siberia]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1833]]

Saur Mountains

2016-12-22T19:58:21Z

Rjwilmsi: /* top */Journal cites: fix page range dash, using AWB (12134)

The '''Saur Mountains''' ({{zh|s=萨吾尔山|p=Sàwú'ěr Shān}}, {{lang-kk|Сауыр жоталары}}, {{lang-ru|Саур}}) is one of the mountain ranges in the [[Tian Shan]] system. An eastern extension of the [[Tarbagatai Mountains]], it starts on the China-Kazakhstan border and continues east into China, where it forms the border between the [[Hoboksar Mongol Autonomous County]] and [[Jeminay County]] of [[Xinjiang]].

The highest peak of the range, and of the entire Saur-Tarbagatai mountain system, is the ice-capped [[Sauyr Zhotasy]], also known as the Muz Tau.

Streams flowing south from the Saur make irrigated agriculture possible, although on a very limited scale, in their valleys in Hoboksar County. One of them reaches as far as the large oasis seen on Google Maps at {{coord|46|10|00|N|86|25|00|E|display=inline|region:CN-62_type:landmark}}, in the southern part of [[Xiazigai]] Township (夏孜盖乡, ''Xiàzīgài xiāng''). Apparently it is streams like this that Chinese geographers describe as "seasonal rivers sourcing from the northern mountains" whose water occasionally reaches the [[Manas Lake]].<ref name=arid>{{citation|journal=JOURNAL OF ARID LAND|year=2010|volume=2|issue=3|pages=167–173|title=Tectonic geomorphological characteristics for evolution of the Manas Lake
|first=Yonghui|last=Yao|first2=Huiguo|last2=Li
|url=http://jal.xjegi.com/EN/article/downloadArticleFile.do?attachType=PDF&id=51}} (p.171)</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

{{Mountain ranges of China}}

{{coord|47|04|00|N|85|34|00|E|display=title}}

[[Category:Mountain ranges of Xinjiang]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Kazakhstan]]

{{Xinjiang-geo-stub}}
{{Kazakhstan-geo-stub}}

Main Uralian Fault

2016-08-04T14:20:25Z

Rjwilmsi: /* Further reading */Journal cites:, added 1 Bibcode using AWB (12061)

{{more footnotes|date=May 2012}}
The '''Main Uralian Fault''' (MUF) runs north–south through the middle of the [[Ural Mountains]] for over 2,000 km. It separates both Europe from Asia and the three, or four, western megazones of the Urals from the three eastern megazones: namely the Pre-Uralian Foredeep, West Uralian, and the Central Uralian to the west, and the Tagil-Magnitogorskian, East Uralian, and Transuralian to the east. The [[Russian Plate]] is often included as the fourth megazone to the west. On the west side of the fault the rocks represent the sediments of the eastern continental margin zone of the European Plate ([[Baltica]]). On the east the rocks are [[Accretion (geology)|accreted]] oceanic and [[island arc]] [[basalt]]s, [[Ultramafic rock|ultramafics]] and volcanics as well as the sediments of the western continental margin zones of the Siberian craton ([[Angara Plate]]) on the north and the [[Kazakhstania|Kazakhstan craton]] on the south.

==Formation==
The Main Uralian Fault formed in the [[Riphean (stage)|Riphean]] (early [[Neoproterozoic]]) in the breakup of the supercontinent [[Rodinia]] as a [[rift valley]] between the Baltica and the [[Angara Plate]] (Siberian craton). As these two plates pulled apart eventually a [[mid-ocean ridge]] formed. The ridge was of basic (basalt) and ultramafic material. Some 500 million years later, in the [[Silurian]], a [[subduction zone]] formed on the western margin of the Angara Plate, which at the time was on the western edge of [[Gondwana]], and the oceanic plate was subducted underneath the Angara Plate, accreting some of the basalts and ultramafics onto the Angara Plate. [[Sial]]ic sediments were metamorphosed, melted and intruded into the rocks above as [[granite]]s. By the early [[Carboniferous]] the oceanic plates were completed subducted and the eastern margin of Baltica, then on the eastern edge of [[Laurussia]] began to collide with the western edge of Angara. In the south the western edge of [[Kazakhstania]] may have been pushed under Baltica. This collision in known generally as the [[Variscan orogeny]], and specifically as to the Urals as the [[Uralian orogeny]] The collision lasted nearly 90 million years from the Carboniferous to the early [[Triassic]].<ref name="brown&echtler">D. Brown & H. Echtler. The Urals. In: R. C. Selley, L. R. M. Cocks & I. R. Plimer (eds.), ''Encyclopedia of Geology'', Vol. 2. Elsevier, 2005. P 86-95.</ref><ref>L. R. M. Cocks & T. H. Torsvik. [http://www.geodynamics.no/guest/geolsoc06.pdf European geography in a global context from the Vendian to the end of the Palaeozoic]. In Gee, D. G. & Stephenson, R. A. (eds), ''European Lithosphere Dynamics. Geological Society, London, Memoirs'', 32, 83–95.</ref><ref>Victor N. Puchkov. The evolution of the Uralian orogen. ''Geological Society, London, Special Publications'', 2009; v. 327; p. 161-195.</ref><ref>D. Brown et al. Mountain building processes during continent–continent collision in the Uralides. ''Earth-Science Reviews'', Volume 89, Issues 3-4, August 2008, Pages 177-195.</ref> The MUF remained active as the plates ground against each other as [[Pangea]] was formed and the Ural Mountains were raised up.

==Dip==
There is [[seismic]] evidence that the Main Uralian Fault extends very deep, in excess of 15 km, into the crust and [[Strike and dip|dips]] to the east as a result of the subduction zone that formed in the [[Silurian]] along the western margin of the Siberian craton. This is supported by evidence of a north-south magmatic axis in the southern Urals that runs through the East Uralian megazone.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fershtater, G.B., Montero, P., Borodina, N.S., Pushkarev, E.V., Smirnov, V.N., and Bea, F. |year=1997|title=Uralian magmatism: an overview|journal=Tectonophysics|volume=276|pages=87–102|doi=10.1016/S0040-1951(97)00049-8|bibcode = 1997Tectp.276...87F }}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite journal|author=Brown, D., Juhlin, C., Alvarez-Marron, J., Perez-Estaun, A., and Oslianski, A.|year=1998|title=Crustal-scale structure and evolution of an arc-continent collision zone in the southern Urals, Russia|journal=Tectonics|volume=17|pages=158–171|doi=10.1029/98tc00129|bibcode=1998Tecto..17..158B}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Juhlin, C., Knapp, J. H., Kashubin, S., and Bliznetsov, M.|year=1996|title=Crustal evolution of the Middle Urals based on seismic reﬂection and refraction data|journal=Tectonophysics|volume=264|pages=21–34|url=http://www.geol.sc.edu/knapp/Publications/Juhlin%20et%20al%2096.pdf|bibcode = 1996Tectp.264...21J |doi = 10.1016/S0040-1951(96)00115-1 }}
* {{Cite journal|author=Juhlin, C. Friberg, M., Echtler, H.P., Hismatulin, T., Rybalka, A., Green, A.G., and Ansorge, J.|year=1998|title=Crustal structure of the Middle Urals: Results from the (ESRU) Europrobe seismic reflection profiling in the Urals experiments|journal=Tectonics|volume=17|pages=710–725|bibcode = 1998Tecto..17..710J |doi = 10.1029/98TC02762 }}
* {{Cite journal|author1=Kruse, S. |author2=McNutt, M. |lastauthoramp=yes |year=1988|title=Compensation of Paleozoic orogens: a comparison of the Urals to the Appalachians|journal=Tectonophysics|volume=154|pages=1–17|bibcode = 1988Tectp.154....1K |doi = 10.1016/0040-1951(88)90224-7 }}
* {{Cite journal|author=Poupinet, G., Thouvenot, F., Zolotov, E.E., Matte, Ph., Egorkin, A.V., and Rackitiv, V.A.|year=1997|title=Teleseismic tomography across the middle Urals: lithospheric trace of an ancient continental collision|journal=Tectonophysics, 276|pages=19–33}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Puchkov, V.N. |year=1987|title=New Data on the Tectonics of the Urals|journal=Geotectonics|volume=21|pages=108–116}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Puchkov, V.N.|year=1993|title=The Paleoceanic Structures of the Ural mountains|journal=Geotectonics|volume=27|pages=184–196}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Puchkov, V.N.|year=1997|title=Tectonics of the Urals: Modern Concepts|journal=Geotectonics|volume=31|pages=294–312}}
* {{Citation|author=Zonenshain, L., Kuzmin, M. and Natapov, L.|publication-date=1990|contribution=Uralian Foldbelt|editor =Page, B. M.|title=Geology of the USSR: A Plate Tectonic Synthesis|series=Geodynamics series, v. 21|publisher=American Geophysical Union|place=Washington, D.C.|pages=27–54|isbn=978-0-87590-521-1}}

==External links==
* [http://www.geo.arizona.edu/geo5xx/geo527/Urals/geology.html Map of Main Uralian Fault showing megazones] Zavacky, J. "The Urals: A Late Paleozoic Mountain Belt"

[[Category:Plate tectonics]]
[[Category:Geology of European Russia]]
[[Category:Geology of Russia]]
[[Category:Ural Mountains]]
[[Category:Seismic faults of Europe]]