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Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia

2017-04-25T20:46:46Z

Marcocapelle: removed Category:History of Islam; added Category:13th-century Islam using HotCat

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=[[Mongol]] conquest of Khwarezmia
|partof=the [[Mongol invasion of Central Asia]]
|image=[[File:Khwarezmian Empire 1190 - 1220 (AD).PNG|300px]]
|caption=Khwarezmid Empire (1190–1220), on the eve of the Mongol conquests
|date=1218–1221
|place=[[Central Asia]], [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]]
|territory=Khwarezmia annexed to the Mongol Empire
|result=Decisive Mongol victory
|combatant1=[[Mongol Empire]]
|combatant2=[[Khwarazmian dynasty]]
|commander1=[[Genghis Khan]] [[Jochi]] [[Chagatai Khan|Chaghatai]] [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]] [[Tolui]] [[Subutai]] [[Jebe]] [[Jelme]] [[Mukali]] [[Khubilai]] [[Kasar]] [[Bo'orchu]] [[Sorkin-shara]]
|commander2=[[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Ala ad-Din Muhammad]] [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu]] [[Inalchuq]]{{Executed}} [[Temur Meliq]]
|units1=Cavalry, mainly 80,000–100,000 [[mounted archery|mounted archer]]s Non-Mongol auxiliaries, engineers, and specialists [[Siege engine]]s, including Chinese gunpowder weapons Drafted Khwarizmian civilians
|units2=Predominantly city garrisons
|strength1=Disputed (see below). Estimates include:
*75,000
*100,000–150,000
*600,000
*800,000
|strength2=40,000–400,000
|casualties1=unknown
|casualties2=1.25 million killed including civilians (25% of the population)<ref>John Man, "Genghis Khan: Life, Death, and Resurrection", Feb. 6 2007. Page 180.</ref>
|notes=
}}
{{Campaignbox Mongol Invasion of the Khwarezmian Empire}}
{{Campaignbox Mongol invasions}}

The '''Mongol conquest of [[Khwarezmid Empire|Khwarezmia]]''' from 1219 to 1221<ref>[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Il-Khanate)]</ref> marked the beginning of the Mongol conquest of the Islamic states. The Mongol expansion would ultimately culminate in the conquest of virtually all of [[Asia]] (as well as [[Mongol invasion of Europe|parts of Eastern Europe]]) save for [[Japan]], the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt]] and most of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Southeast Asia]].

It was not originally the intention of the [[Mongol Empire]] to invade the Khwarezmid Empire. According to the Persian historian [[Minhaj-i-Siraj|Juzjani]], Genghis Khan had originally sent the ruler of the Khwarezmid Empire, [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Ala ad-Din Muhammad]], a message seeking trade and greeted him as his neighbor: "I am master of the lands of the rising sun while you rule those of the setting sun. Let us conclude a firm treaty of friendship and peace." or he said "I am Khan of the lands of the rising sun while you are sultan those of the setting sun: Let us conclude a firm agreement of friendship and peace"<ref>Ratchnevsky, Paul. ''Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy'', p. 120.</ref> The Mongols' original unification of all "people in felt tents", unifying the [[nomad]]ic tribes in Mongolia and then the Turcomens and other nomadic peoples, had come with relatively little bloodshed, and almost no material loss. The [[Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty|Mongol wars with the Jurchens]] however had shown how cruel the Mongols could be. Shah Muhammad reluctantly agreed to this peace treaty, but it was not to last. The war started less than a year later, when a Mongol caravan and its envoys were massacred in the Khwarezmian city of [[Otrar]].

In the ensuing war, lasting less than two years, the Khwarezmid Empire was destroyed.

==Origins of the conflict==
After the defeat of the [[Kara-Khitan]]s, [[Genghis Khan]]'s [[Mongol Empire]] gained a border with the [[Khwarezmid Empire]], governed by [[Shah]] [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Ala ad-Din Muhammad]]. The Shah had only recently taken some of the territory under his control, and he was also busy with a dispute with the [[caliph]] in [[Baghdad]], [[An-Nasir]]. The Shah had refused to make the obligatory homage to the caliph as titular leader of Islam, and demanded recognition as Shah of his empire, without any of the usual bribes or pretenses. This alone had created problems for him along his southern border. It was at this junction the rapidly expanding Mongol Empire made contact.<ref name=Saunders>Saunders, J. J. ''The History of the Mongol Conquests</ref> Mongol historians are adamant that the great khan at that time had no intention of invading the Khwarezmid Empire, and was only interested in trade and even a potential alliance.<ref name=Hildinger>Hildinger, Eric. ''Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700''</ref>

The Shah was very suspicious of Genghis' desire for a trade agreement, and messages from the Shah's ambassador at [[Zhongdu]] ([[Beijing]]) in China described the exaggerated savagery of the Mongols when they assaulted the city during their war with the [[Jin Dynasty (1115-1234)|Jin Dynasty]].<ref name=Soucek>Soucek, Svatopluk ''A History of Inner Asia''</ref>
Of further interest is that the caliph of Baghdad had attempted to instigate a war between the Mongols and the Shah some years before the Mongol invasion actually occurred. This attempt at an alliance with Genghis was made because of a dispute between Nasir and the Shah, but the Khan had no interest in alliance with any ruler who claimed ultimate authority, titular or not, and which marked the Caliphate for an extinction which would come from Genghis' grandson, [[Hulegu Khan|Hulegu]]. At the time, this attempt by the Caliph involved the Shah's ongoing claim to be named sultan of Khwarezm, something that Nasir had no wish to grant, as the Shah refused to acknowledge his authority, however illusory such authority was. However, it is known that Genghis rejected the notion of war as he was engaged in war with the Jin Dynasty and was gaining much wealth from trading with the Khwarezmid Empire.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}}

Genghis then sent a 500-man [[Camel train|caravan]] of Muslims to establish official trade ties with Khwarezmia. However [[Inalchuq]], the governor of the Khwarezmian city of [[Otrar]], had the members of the caravan that came from Mongolia arrested, claiming that the caravan was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. It seems unlikely, however, that any members of the trade delegation were spies. Nor does it seem likely that Genghis was trying to initiate a conflict with the Khwarezmid Empire with the caravan, considering he was making steady progress against a faltering Jin empire in northern China at that very moment.<ref name=Hildinger/>

Genghis Khan then sent a second group of three ambassadors (one Muslim and two Mongols) to meet the shah himself and demand the caravan at Otrar be set free and the governor be handed over for punishment. The shah had both of the Mongols shaved and had the Muslim [[behead]]ed before sending them back to Genghis Khan. Muhammad also ordered the personnel of the caravan to be executed. This was seen as a grave affront to the Khan himself, who considered ambassadors "as sacred and inviolable."<ref name=Prawdin>[[Michael Prawdin|Prawdin, Michael]]. ''The Mongol Empire''.</ref> This led Genghis Khan to attack the [[Khwarezmid Empire#Khwarezmian Dynasty|Khwarezmian Dynasty]]. The [[Mongols]] crossed the [[Tian Shan|Tien Shan mountains]], coming into the Shah's empire in 1219.<ref>Ratchnevsky 1994, p. 129.</ref>

==Initial invasion==
After compiling information from many intelligence sources, primarily from spies along the [[Silk Road]], Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was organized differently from his earlier campaigns.<ref>See "[[Mongol military tactics and organization]]" for overall coverage.</ref> The changes had come in adding supporting units to his dreaded cavalry, both heavy and light. While still relying on the traditional advantages of his mobile nomadic cavalry, Genghis incorporated many aspects of warfare from China, particularly in [[siege warfare]]. His baggage train included such siege equipment as [[battering rams]], [[gunpowder]], and enormous [[ballista|siege bows]] capable of throwing 20-foot arrows into siege works. Also, the Mongol intelligence network was formidable. The Mongols never invaded an opponent whose military and economic will and ability to resist had not been thoroughly and completely scouted. For instance, Subutai and Batu Khan spent a year scouting central Europe, before destroying the armies of Hungary and Poland in two separate battles, two days apart.<ref name=Chambers>Chambers, James. ''The Devil's Horsemen''</ref>

The size of Genghis's army is often in dispute. Many contemporary Muslim historians claim that the Mongol army was larger, with 400,000 for the Shah (spread across the whole empire) and 600,000–700,000 for the Khan being common figures. 800,000 for Genghis was also thrown around, though with less frequency. However, this figure would exceed the entire Mongol population by many fold, as nomadic populations were not capable of sustaining large populations due to insufficient food production from a lack of agriculture. Modern historians still debate to what degree these numbers reflected reality. David Morgan and Denis Sinor, among others, doubt the numbers are true in either absolute or relative terms, while John Mason Smith sees the numbers as accurate. Sinor credits the Khwarezmians with a total army of 400,000, but puts the Mongol force closer to 100,000–150,000. Near-contemporary sources, such as Rashid Al-Din, state that the Mongols had 105,000 soldiers total in 1206, and 129,000 in 1227.<ref>France, p. 109-110</ref>

John France, using a variety of sources and estimation methods, gives the number of 75,000 for the Mongol army, while noting that 40,000 for the Khwarezmian army is possible.<ref>France, p. 113</ref> Genghis brought along his most able generals to aid him. Genghis also brought a large body of foreigners with him, primarily of Chinese origin. These foreigners were siege experts, bridge-building experts, doctors and a variety of specialty soldiers.

During the invasion of [[Transoxania]] in 1219, along with the main Mongol force, Genghis Khan used a Chinese specialist catapult unit in battle; they were used again in 1220 in Transoxania. The Chinese may have used the [[catapult]]s to hurl gunpowder bombs, since they already had them by this time.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esnWJkYRCJ4C&pg=PA58 |title=Firearms: a global history to 1700 |author=Kenneth Warren Chase|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume= |date= |year=2003 |month= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |language= |isbn=0-521-82274-2 |page=58 |pages= |quote=Chinggis Khan organized a unit of Chinese catapult specialists in 1214, and these men formed part of the first Mongol army to invade Transoania in 1219. This was not too early for true firearms, and it was nearly two centuries after catapult-thrown gunpowder bombs had been added to the Chinese arsenal. Chinese siege equipment saw action in Transoxania in 1220 and in the north Caucasus in 1239–40.}}</ref> While Genghis Khan was conquering Transoxania and Persia, several Chinese who were familiar with gunpowder were serving with Genghis's army.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgQXAQAAIAAJ&q=Though+he+was+himself+a+Chinese,+he+learned+his+trade+from+his+father,+who+had+accompanied+Genghis+Khan+on+his+invasion+of+Muslim+Transoxania+and+Iran.+Perhaps+the+use+of+gunpowder+as+a+propellant,+in+other+words+the+invention+of+true&dq=Though+he+was+himself+a+Chinese,+he+learned+his+trade+from+his+father,+who+had+accompanied+Genghis+Khan+on+his+invasion+of+Muslim+Transoxania+and+Iran.+Perhaps+the+use+of+gunpowder+as+a+propellant,+in+other+words+the+invention+of+true&hl=en&ei=TgfUTtqlEZLD0AHC95QD&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA|title=The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane |author1=David Nicolle |author2=Richard Hook |accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume= |date= |year=1998 |month= |publisher=Brockhampton Press |location= |language= |isbn=1-86019-407-9 |page=86 |pages= |quote=Though he was himself a Chinese, he learned his trade from his father, who had accompanied Genghis Khan on his invasion of Muslim Transoxania and Iran. Perhaps the use of gunpowder as a propellant, in other words the invention of true guns, appeared first in the Muslim Middle East, whereas the invention of gunpowder itself was a Chinese achievement}}</ref> Historians have suggested that the Mongol invasion had brought Chinese gunpowder weapons to Central Asia. One of these was the [[huochong]], a Chinese mortar.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AzG5llo3YCMC&pg=PA474&dq=Indeed,+it+is+possible+that+gunpowder+devices,+including+Chinese+mortar+(+huochong),+had+reached+Central+Asia+through+the+Mongols+as+early+as+the+thirteenth+century.71+Yet+the+potential+remained+unexploited;&hl=en&ei=gQrUToDEO4Hz0gHfi-SyBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Indeed%2C%20it%20is%20possible%20that%20gunpowder%20devices%2C%20including%20Chinese%20mortar%20(%20huochong)%2C%20had%20reached%20Central%20Asia%20through%20the%20Mongols%20as%20early%20as%20the%20thirteenth%20century.71%20Yet%20the%20potential%20remained%20unexploited%3B&f=false|title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast : from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century |author1=Chahryar Adle |author2=Irfan Habib |editor1=Ahmad Hasan Dani |editor2=Chahryar Adle |editor3=Irfan Habib |accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition=illustrated |series= |volume=Volume 5 of History of Civilizations of Central Asia |date= |year=2003 |month= |publisher=UNESCO |location= |language= |isbn=92-3-103876-1 |page=474 |pages= |quote=Indeed, it is possible that gunpowder devices, including Chinese mortar (huochong), had reached Central Asia through the Mongols as early as the thirteenth century.71 Yet the potential remained unexploited; even Sultan Husayn's use of cannon may have had Ottoman inspiration.}}</ref>

[[File:Madrasah Kukaldash (Tashkent) 11-44.JPG|thumb|left|Madrasah Kukaldash (Tashkent)]]

In this invasion, the Khan first demonstrated the use of indirect attack that would become a hallmark of his later campaigns, and those of his sons and grandsons. The Khan divided his armies, and sent one force solely to find and execute the [[Shah]] – so that a ruler of an Empire as large as that of the Khan's, with a larger army, was forced to run for his life in his own country.<ref name=Saunders/> The divided Mongol forces destroyed the Shah's forces [[Defeat in detail|piecemeal]], and began the utter devastation of the country which would mark many of their later conquests.
[[File:Bataille de vâliyân (1221).jpeg|thumb|Battle of Vâliyân (1221). Jami' al-tawarikh, Rashid al-Din.]]
The Shah's army, numbering anywhere from 40,000 to 400,000, was split among the various major cities. The empire had just recently conquered much of its territory, and the Shah was fearful that his army, if placed in one large unit under a single command structure, might possibly be turned against him. Furthermore, the Shah's reports from China indicated that the Mongols were not experts in siege warfare, and experienced problems when attempting to take fortified positions. The Shah's decisions on troop deployment would prove disastrous as the campaign unfolded.

Though tired from their journey, the Mongols still won their first victories against the [[Khwarezmia]]n army. A Mongol army, under [[Jochi]], with 25,000 to 30,000 men, attacked the Shah's army in southern Khwarezmia and prevented the much larger forces of the Shah from forcing them into the mountains.<ref name=Morgan>Morgan, David ''The Mongols''</ref> The primary Mongol army, headed personally by Genghis Khan, reached the city of [[Otrar]] in the fall of 1219. After besieging Otrar for five months, the Khan's forces managed to storm the main part of the city by entering a sally port gate that was not secured.<ref name="Morgan"/>

A further month went by before the citadel at Otrar was taken. [[Inalchuq]] held out until the end, even climbing to the top of the citadel in the last moments of the siege to throw down tiles at the oncoming Mongols. Genghis killed many of the inhabitants, enslaved the rest, and executed Inalchuq.<ref name=Man>{{cite book | author = John Man | title = Genghis Khan: Life, Death, and Resurrection | publisher = Macmillan | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-312-36624-8 | pages = 163}}</ref>
[[File:Urgench.jpg|thumb|225px|Ruins of Muhammad's palace in [[Kunya Urgench|Urgench]].]]

==Sieges of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Urgench==
Genghis placed his general [[Jebe]] at the head of a small army sent to the south, intending to cut off any retreat by the Shah to that half of his kingdom. Further, Genghis and Tolui, at the head of an army of roughly 50,000 men, skirted [[Samarkand]] and went westwards to lay siege to the city of [[Bukhara]] first. To do this, they traversed the seemingly impassable [[Kyzyl Kum]] desert by hopping through the various oases, guided most of the way by captured nomads. The Mongols arrived at the gates of Bukhara virtually unnoticed. Many military tacticians regard this surprise entrance to Bukhara as one of the most successful surprise attacks in warfare.<ref name=Greene>[[Robert Greene (American author)|Greene, Robert]] "The 33 Strategies of War"</ref>

Bukhara was not heavily fortified, with a moat and a single wall, and the citadel typical of Khwarezmi cities. The Bukharan garrison was made up of Turkish soldiers and led by Turkish generals, who attempted to break out on the third day of the siege. The break-out force, of perhaps 20,000 men, was annihilated in open battle. The city leaders opened the gates to the Mongols, though a unit of Turkish defenders held the city's citadel for another twelve days. Survivors from the citadel were executed, artisans and craftsmen were sent back to Mongolia, young men who had not fought were drafted into the Mongolian army and the rest of the population was sent into slavery. As the Mongol soldiers looted the city, a fire broke out, razing most of the city to the ground.<ref name="Morgan"/> Genghis Khan had the people assemble in the main mosque of the town, where he declared that he was the flail of God, sent to punish them for their sins before ordering their execution.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

After the fall of Bukhara, Genghis headed to the Khwarezmi capital of Samarkand and arrived in March 1220. Samarkand possessed significantly better fortifications and as many as 100,000 men defending it. As Genghis began his siege, his sons [[Chagatai Khan|Chaghatai]] and [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]] joined him after finishing the reduction of Otrar, and the joint Mongol forces launched an assault on the city. The Mongols attacked using prisoners as body shields. On the third day of fighting, the Samarkand garrison launched a counterattack. Feigning retreat, Genghis drew a garrison force of 50,000 outside the fortifications of Samarkand and slaughtered them in open combat. Shah Muhammad attempted to relieve the city twice, but was driven back. On the fifth day, all but an approximate 2,000 soldiers surrendered. The remaining soldiers, die-hard supporters of the Shah, held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis reneged on his surrender terms and executed every soldier that had taken arms against him at Samarkand. The people of Samarkand were ordered to evacuate and assemble in a plain outside the city, where they were killed and pyramids of severed heads raised as the symbol of Mongol victory.<ref>[https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm Central Asian world cities]</ref>

About the time of the fall of Samarkand, Genghis Khan charged [[Subutai]] and Jebe, two of the Khan's top generals, with hunting down the Shah. The Shah had fled west with some of his most loyal soldiers and his son, [[Mingburnu|Jalal al-Din]], to a small island in the [[Caspian Sea]]. It was there, in December 1220, that the Shah died. Most scholars attribute his death to pneumonia, but others cite the sudden shock of the loss of his empire.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of [[Konya-Urgench|Urgench]] was still in the hands of Khwarezmian forces. Previously, the Shah's mother had ruled Urgench, but she fled when she learned her son had absconded to the Caspian Sea. She was captured and sent to Mongolia. [[Khumar Tegin]], one of Muhammad's generals, declared himself Sultan of Urgench. Jochi, who had been on campaign in the north since the invasion, approached the city from that direction, while Genghis, Ögedei, and Chaghatai attacked from the south.
[[File:Terken-Khatun-Captive-Initi.gif|[[Terken Khatun (wife of Ala ad-Din Tekish)|Terken Khatun]], Empress of the Khwarazmian Empire, known as "the Queen of the Turks", held captive by Mongol army.|thumb]]
The assault on Urgench proved to be the most difficult battle of the Mongol invasion. The city was built along the river [[Amu Darya]] in a marshy delta area. The soft ground did not lend itself to siege warfare, and there was a lack of large stones for the catapults. The Mongols attacked regardless, and the city fell only after the defenders put up a stout defense, fighting block for block. Mongolian casualties were higher than normal, due to the unaccustomed difficulty of adapting Mongolian tactics to city fighting.

The taking of Urgench was further complicated by continuing tensions between the Khan and his eldest son, Jochi, who had been promised the city as his prize. Jochi's mother was the same as his three brothers': Genghis Khan's teen bride, and apparent lifelong love, Borte. Only her sons were counted as Genghis's "official" sons and successors, rather than those conceived by the Khan's 500 or so other "wives and consorts." But Jochi had been conceived in controversy; in the early days of the Khan's rise to power, Borte was captured and raped while she was held prisoner. Jochi was born nine months later. While Genghis Khan chose to acknowledge him as his oldest son (primarily due to his love for Borte, whom he would have had to reject had he rejected her child), questions had always existed over Jochi's true parentage.<ref name=Nicolle>Nicolle, David. ''The Mongol Warlords''</ref>

Such tensions were present as Jochi engaged in negotiations with the defenders, trying to get them to surrender so that as much of the city as possible was undamaged. This angered Chaghatai, and Genghis headed off this sibling fight by appointing Ögedei the commander of the besieging forces as Urgench fell. But the removal of Jochi from command, and the sack of a city he considered promised to him, enraged him and estranged him from his father and brothers, and is credited with being a decisive impetus for the later actions of a man who saw his younger brothers promoted over him, despite his own considerable military skills.<ref name="Saunders"/>

As usual, the artisans were sent back to Mongolia, young women and children were given to the Mongol soldiers as slaves, and the rest of the population was massacred. The Persian scholar [[Ata al-Mulk Juvayni|Juvayni]] states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were given the task of executing twenty-four Urgench citizens each, which would mean that 1.2 million people were killed. While this is almost certainly an exaggeration, the sacking of Urgench is considered one of the [[List of wars and disasters by death toll#Individual battles and sieges|bloodiest massacres in human history]].{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

Then came the complete destruction of the city of Gurjang, south of the [[Aral Sea]]. Upon its surrender the Mongols broke the dams and flooded the city, then proceeded to execute the survivors.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

==The Khorasan campaign==
As the Mongols battered their way into Urgench, Genghis dispatched his youngest son [[Tolui]], at the head of an army, into the western Khwarezmid province of Khorasan. Khorasan had already felt the strength of Mongol arms. Earlier in the war, the generals Jebe and Subutai had travelled through the province while hunting down the fleeing Shah. However, the region was far from subjugated, many major cities remained free of Mongol rule, and the region was rife with rebellion against the few Mongol forces present in the region, following rumors that the Shah's son Jalal al-Din was gathering an army to fight the Mongols. Tolui's army consisted of somewhere around 50,000 men, which was composed of a core of Mongol soldiers (some estimates place it at 7,000<ref name=Stubbs>Stubbs, Kim. ''Facing the Wrath of Khan.''</ref>), supplemented by a large body of foreign soldiers, such as Turks and previously conquered peoples in China and Mongolia. The army also included "3,000 machines flinging heavy incendiary arrows, 300 catapults, 700 [[mangonel]]s to discharge pots filled with [[naphtha]], 4,000 storming-ladders, and 2,500 sacks of earth for filling up moats."<ref name="Prawdin"/> Among the first cities to fall was [[Termez]] then [[Balkh]]. The major city to fall to Tolui's army was the city of [[Merv]]. Juvayni wrote of Merv: "In extent of territory it excelled among the lands of Khorasan, and the bird of peace and security flew over its confines. The number of its chief men rivaled the drops of April rain, and its earth contended with the heavens."<ref name="Stubbs"/>

The garrison at Merv was only about 12,000 men, and the city was inundated with refugees from eastern Khwarezmia. For six days, Tolui besieged the city, and on the seventh day, he assaulted the city. However, the garrison beat back the assault and launched their own counter-attack against the Mongols. The garrison force was similarly forced back into the city. The next day, the city's governor surrendered the city on Tolui's promise that the lives of the citizens would be spared. As soon as the city was handed over, however, Tolui slaughtered almost every person who surrendered, in a massacre possibly on a greater scale than that at Urgench. After finishing off Merv, Tolui headed westwards, attacking the cities of [[Nishapur]] and [[Herat]].<ref>[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat0.htm#Mongol Mongol Conquests]</ref> Nishapur fell after only three days; here, Tokuchar, a son-in-law of Genghis was killed in battle, and Tolui put to the sword every living thing in city, including the cats and dogs, with Tokuchar's widow presiding over the slaughter.<ref name="Stubbs"/> After Nishapur's fall, Herat surrendered without a fight and was spared. [[Bamian]] in the [[Hindukush]] was another scene of carnage during the [[1221 siege of Bamiyan]], here stiff resistance resulted in the death of a grandson of Genghis. Next were the cities of [[Tus, Iran|Toos]] and [[Mashad]]. By spring 1221, the province of [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]] was under complete Mongol rule. Leaving garrison forces behind him, Tolui headed back east to rejoin his father.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

==The final campaign and aftermath==
After the Mongol campaign in Khurasan, the Shah's army was broken. Jalal al-Din, who took power after his father's death, began assembling the remnants of the Khwarezmid army in the south, in the area of [[Afghanistan]]. Genghis had dispatched forces to hunt down the gathering army under Jalal al-Din, and the two sides met in the spring of 1221 at the town of [[Parwan]]. The engagement was a [[Battle of Parwan|humiliating defeat for the Mongol forces]]. Enraged, Genghis headed south himself, and [[Battle of Indus|defeated Jalal al-Din on the Indus River]]. Jalal al-Din, defeated, fled to India. Genghis spent some time on the southern shore of the Indus searching for the new Shah, but failed to find him. The Khan returned northwards, content to leave the Shah in India.

After the remaining centers of resistance were destroyed, Genghis returned to Mongolia, leaving Mongolian garrison troops behind. The destruction and absorption of the Khwarezmid Empire would prove to be a sign of things to come for the Islamic world, as well as Eastern Europe.<ref name="Morgan"/>
The new territory proved to be an important stepping stone for Mongol armies under the reign of Genghis' son Ögedei to invade [[Kievan Rus']] and Poland, and future campaigns brought Mongol arms to Hungary and the [[Baltic Sea]]. For the Islamic world, the destruction of Khwarezmid left Iraq, Turkey and Syria wide open. All three were eventually subjugated by future Khans.

The war with Khwarezmia also brought up the important question of succession. Genghis was not young when the war began, and he had four sons, all of whom were fierce warriors and each with their own loyal followers. Such sibling rivalry almost came to a head during the siege of Urgench, and Genghis was forced to rely on his third son, Ögedei, to finish the battle. Following the destruction of Urgench, Genghis officially selected Ögedei to be successor, as well as establishing that future Khans would come from direct descendants of previous rulers. Despite this establishment, the four sons would eventually come to blows, and those blows showed the instability of the Khanate that Genghis had created.

Jochi never forgave his father, and essentially withdrew from further Mongol wars, into the north, where he refused to come to his father when he was ordered to.<ref name="Nicolle"/> Indeed, at the time of his death, the Khan was contemplating a march on his rebellious son. The bitterness that came from this transmitted to his sons, and especially grandsons, [[Batu Khan|Batu]] and [[Berke Khan]], (of the [[Golden Horde]]) who would conquer [[Kievan Rus]].<ref name="Chambers"/> When the Mamluks of Egypt managed to inflict one of history's more significant defeats on the Mongols at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260, Hulegu Khan, one of Genghis Khan's grandsons by his son [[Tolui]], who had [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|sacked Baghdad in 1258]], was unable to avenge that defeat when Berke Khan, his cousin, (who had converted to Islam) attacked him in the Transcaucasus to aid the cause of Islam, and Mongol battled Mongol for the first time. The seeds of that battle began in the war with Khwarezmia when their fathers struggled for supremacy.<ref name="Morgan"/>

==See also==
*[[Mongol invasion of Central Asia]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. ''The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War'', Cambridge University Press, 1996. (ISBN 0-521-52290-0)
* Chambers, James. ''The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe'', Atheneum, 1979. (ISBN 0-689-10942-3)
* Greene, Robert. ''The 33 Strategies of War'', New York: Viking Penguin, 2006. (ISBN 978-0143112785)
* Hildinger, Erik. ''Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700'', Sarpedon Publishers, 1997. (ISBN 1-885119-43-7)
* Morgan, David. ''The Mongols'', 1986. (ISBN 0-631-17563-6)
* Nicolle, David. ''The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane'', Brockhampton Press, 1998. (ISBN 1-853-14104-6)
* Ratchnevsky, Paul. ''Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy''. Translated and edited by Thomas Nivison Haining. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994. (ISBN 978-0631189497)
* Reagan, Geoffry. ''The Guinness Book of Decisive Battles'', New York: Canopy Books, 1992.
* Saunders, J.J. ''The History of the Mongol Conquests'', Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, 1971. (ISBN 0-8122-1766-7)
* Sicker, Martin. ''The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna'', Praeger Publishers, 2000. (ISBN 0-275-96892-8)
* Soucek, Svat. ''A History of Inner Asia'', Cambridge, 2000. (ISBN 978-0521657044)
* Stubbs, Kim. Facing the Wrath of Khan." ''Military History'' (May 2006): 30–37.
* France, John. "Journal of Medieval Military History, Volume 8". Published 18 Nov 2010. ISBN 9781843835967.

==External links==
* A [http://www.timespacemap.com/search/eventsearch.htm?_what=%22Mongolian%20Invasion%20of%20Central%20Asia%22&_maptype=2 Map of Events] mentioned in this article.

{{Mongol Empire}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mongol Invasion Of Khwarezmia}}
[[Category:Expeditionary warfare]]
[[Category:Invasions by the Mongol Empire|Khwarezmia and Eastern Iran]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Mongols]]
[[Category:History of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Military history of Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:13th-century Islam]]
[[Category:History of Turkmenistan]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1219]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1220]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1221]]
[[Category:13th century in Iran]]
[[Category:1219 in the Mongol Empire]]
[[Category:1220 in the Mongol Empire]]
[[Category:1221 in the Mongol Empire]]
[[Category:Invasions of Iran]]

Iranian Intermezzo

2017-04-23T20:14:16Z

Marcocapelle: removed Category:History of Islam; added Category:Medieval Islam using HotCat

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2011}}
The term '''Iranian Intermezzo'''<ref>Such an obviously ''coined'' designation was introduced by [[Vladimir Minorsky]], "The Iranian Intermezzo", in ''Studies in Caucasian history'' (London, 1953) and has been taken up by [[Bernard Lewis]], among others, in his ''The Middle East: A brief history of the last 2,000 years'' (New York, 1995).</ref> represents a period in history which saw the rise of various native [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] Muslim dynasties in the [[Iranian plateau]]. This term is noteworthy since it was an interlude between the decline of [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbāsid]] Arab rule and power and the eventual emergence of the [[Seljuq Turks]] in the 11th century. The Iranian revival consisted of Iranian support based on Iranian territory and most significantly a revived Iranian national spirit and culture in an Islamic form.<ref>The Middle East: 2,000 Years of History from the Rise of Christianity to the Present Day (pgs. 81–82) – Bernard Lewis</ref>

== Muslim Iranian dynasties ==

=== Tahirids (821–873) ===
The '''[[Tahirid dynasty]]''', (Persian: سلسله طاهریان) was an Iranian Persian dynasty that ruled over the northeastern part of [[Greater Iran]], in the region of Khorasan (made up of parts of present-day [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], and [[Uzbekistan]]). The Tahirid capital was located in [[Nishapur]].

=== Sajids (889–929) ===
The '''Sajid dynasty''' ({{lang-fa|ساجیان}}), was an Islamic dynasty that ruled from 889-890 until 929. Sajids ruled Azerbaijan and parts of Armenia first from [[Maragha]] and [[Barda, Azerbaijan|Barda]] and then from [[Ardabil]].<ref>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-iv Iranicaonline.org AZERBAIJAN iv. Islamic History to 1941]</ref> The Sajids originated from the [[Central Asian]] province of [[Ushrusana]] and were of Iranian ([[Sogdians]])<ref>Clifford Edmund Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual, Columbia University, 1996. pg 147: "The Sajids were a line of caliphal governors in north-western persia, the family of a commander in the 'Abbasid service of Soghdian descent which became culturally Arabised."</ref><ref>V. Minorsky, Studies in Caucasian history, Cambridge University Press, 1957. pg 111</ref> heritage.

=== Saffarids (861–1003) ===
The '''[[Saffarid dynasty]]''' ({{lang-fa|سلسله صفاریان}}), was an Iranian Persian empire<ref>The Cambridge History of Iran, By Richard Nelson Frye, William Bayne Fisher, John Andrew Boyle, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1975, ISBN 0-521-20093-8, ISBN 978-0-521-20093-6; pg. 121.</ref> which ruled in [[Sistan]] (861–1003), a historical region in southeastern Iran and southwestern Afghanistan.<ref>[[Nancy Hatch Dupree]] – An Historical Guide To Afghanistan – ''Sites in Perspective (Chapter 3)''...
[http://www.zharov.com/dupree/chapter03.html Link]</ref> Their capital was [[Zaranj]].

=== Samanids (875/819–999) ===
The '''[[Samanid dynasty]]''' ({{lang-fa|سلسلهٔ سامانیان}}), also known as the '''Samanid Empire''' or simply '''Samanids''' (819–999)<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, Online Edition, 2007, ''Samanid Dynasty'', [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9065183/Samanid-Dynasty LINK]</ref> ({{lang-fa|سامانیان}} ''Sāmāniyān'') was an Iranian empire<ref>
*A historical atlas of Uzbekistan, By Aisha Khan, Published by The Rosen Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 0-8239-3868-9, ISBN 978-0-8239-3868-1, pg. 23;
*The Cambridge History of Iran, By Richard Nelson Frye, William Bayne Fisher, John Andrew Boyle, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1975, ISBN 0-521-20093-8, ISBN 978-0-521-20093-6, pg. 164;
*The New Encyclopædia Britannica, By Encyclopædia Britannica Publishers, Inc. Staff, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc, Published by Encyclopædia Britannica, 1987, ISBN 0-85229-443-3, ISBN 978-0-85229-443-7, pg. 891;
*The monumental inscriptions from early Islamic Iran and Transoxiana, By Sheila Blair, Published by BRILL, 1992, ISBN 90-04-09367-2, ISBN 978-90-04-09367-6, pg. 27.</ref> in Central Asia and [[Greater Khorasan]], named after its founder [[Saman Khuda]] who converted to [[Sunni]] Islam<ref>The History of Iran By Elton L. Daniel, pg. 74</ref> despite being from [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] theocratic nobility.<ref>''The Ornament of Histories: A History of the Eastern Islamic Lands AD 650-1041'', transl. & ed. C.E. Bosworth, (I.B. Tauris, 2011), 53.</ref>

With their roots stemming from the city of [[Balkh]] (in present-day Afghanistan), the Samanids promoted the arts, giving rise to the advancement of science and literature, and thus attracted scholars such as [[Rudaki]] and [[Avicenna]]. While under Samanid control, [[Bukhara]] was a rival to [[Baghdad]] in its glory. Scholars note that the Samanids revived Persian more than the Buyids and the Saffarids, while continuing to patronize [[Arabic language|Arabic]] to a significant degree. Nevertheless, in a famous edict, Samanid authorities declared that "here, in this region, the language is Persian, and the kings of this realm are Persian kings."<ref>Richard Foltz, ''Iran in World History'', (Oxford University Press, 2016), 56-58.</ref>

=== Buyyids (932–1055) ===
[[File:Buyids within the Middle East, ca. 970.png|400px|thumb|Southwest Asia – c. 970 A.D]]
'''[[Buyid dynasty]]''', also known as the '''Buyid Empire'''<ref>
*Busse, Heribert (1975), "Iran Under the Buyids", in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs., Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, page 270: "Aleppo remained a buffer between the Buyid empire and Byzantium".
*Joseph Reese Strayer (1985), "Dictionary of the Middle Ages", Published by Scribner, 1985.</ref> or the '''Buyids''' ({{lang-fa|آل بویه}} ''Āl-e Buye'', [[Caspian languages|Caspian]]: Bowyiyün), also known as ''Buwaihids'' or ''Buyyids'', were a [[Shia Islam|Shī‘ah]] [[Persian people|Persian]]<ref name="NagBUYI">{{cite encyclopedia
| last = Nagel
| first = Tilman
| title = BUYIDS
| encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Iranica
| url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/buyids
| accessdate = 2012-02-08 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=MADELUNG|first=WILFERD|title=DEYLAMITES|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/deylamites|work=Encyclopædia Iranica|accessdate=8 February 2012}}</ref><ref>Clifford Edmund Bosworth, ''The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual'', Columbia University, 1996. pg 154–155.</ref><ref>"Buyid Dynasty." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Jan. 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9018373></ref> dynasty that originated from [[Daylaman]]. They founded a confederation that controlled most of modern-day Iran and Iraq in the 10th and 11th centuries.
Indeed, as Dailamite Iranians the Būyids consciously revived symbols and practices of Persia's Sassānid dynasty. In fact, beginning with 'Adud al-Daula they used the ancient Sassānid title Shāhanshāh (Persian: شاهنشاه), literally meaning king of kings.

=== Sallarids (942–979) ===
The '''[[Sallarid|Sallarid dynasty]]''' (also referred to as the '''Musafirids''' or '''Langarids''') was an Islamic Persian dynasty principally known for its rule of [[Iranian Azerbaijan]], [[Azerbaijan]], and a part of [[Armenia]] from 942 until 979.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Iranian Intermezzo| ]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:History of Kyrgyzstan]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]
[[Category:History of Tajikistan]]
[[Category:History of Turkmenistan]]
[[Category:History of Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Medieval Islam]]
[[Category:9th century in Iran]]
[[Category:10th century in Iran]]
[[Category:11th century in Iran]]

Category:Sasanian Empire

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{{Cat main}}
{{Commons category|Sassanid Empire}}

[[Category:Ancient Armenia]]
[[Category:Ancient history of Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Ancient history of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ancient history of Turkey]]
[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of Iran]]
[[Category:Former countries in Western Asia]]
[[Category:Former empires of Asia]]
[[Category:History of Abkhazia]]
[[Category:History of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:History of Armenia]]
[[Category:Ancient history of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of the Caucasus]]
[[Category:History of Dagestan]]
[[Category:History of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:History of Kyrgyzstan]]
[[Category:Ancient Syria]]
[[Category:History of Tajikistan]]
[[Category:History of Turkmenistan]]
[[Category:History of Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Late antiquity]]
[[Category:Medieval Armenia]]
[[Category:Medieval Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Medieval Iraq]]
[[Category:Near East in classical antiquity]]
[[Category:Persian history|+3]]
[[Category:Superpowers]]
[[Category:Wikipedia categories named after empires]]
[[Category:Wikipedia categories named after former countries]]
[[Category:1st millennium in Iran]]

Kazakh ambassador to the United States

2017-02-22T06:42:41Z

Marcocapelle: category renamed per Wikipedia:Categories_for_discussion/Log/2017_February_14#Category:Kazakh_ambassador

{{Infobox official post
|post = [[Ambassador]]
|body = [[Kazakhstan]] to [[United States]] [[Embassy of Kazakhstan in Washington, D.C.]]
|native_name =
|insignia =
|insigniasize =
|insigniacaption =
|department =
|image =Embassy of Kazakhstan in Washington.jpg
|alt =Embassy of Kazakhstan in Washington, D.C.
|incumbent =[[Kairat Umarov]]
|incumbentsince ={{dts|2013|01|09}}
|style =
|residence =
|nominator =
|nominatorpost =
|appointer =
|appointerpost =
|termlength =
|inaugural = [[Alim Shakirovich Djambourchine]]
|formation ={{dts|1992|11|09}}
|last =
|abolished =
|succession =
|deputy =
|salary =
|website =
}}

The '''[[Kazakhstan|Kazakh]] [[ambassador]] in [[Washington, D. C.]]''' is the official representative of the Government in [[Astana]] to the Government of the [[United States]] and is concurrently acredited in [[Brasilia]].

== List of Representatives ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!| Diplomatic [[agrément]]
!| [[Diplomatic accreditation]]
!| [[ambassador]]
!| Observations
!| [[Prime Minister of Kazakhstan]]
!| [[List of Presidents of the United States]]
!| Term end
|-

|-
|{{dts|1991|11|01}}
|
|
|– diplomatic relations established between the United States and the Republic of Kazakhstan
|[[Sergey Tereshchenko]]
|[[George H. W. Bush]]
|

|-
|{{dts|1992|11|09}}
|{{dts|1992|11|19}}
|[[Alim Shakirovich Djambourchine]]
|
|[[Sergey Tereshchenko]]
|[[George H. W. Bush]]
|

|-
|{{dts|1994|08|11}}
|
|[[Tuleutai Suleimenov]]
|
|[[Akezhan Kazhegeldin]]
|[[Bill Clinton]]
|

|-
|{{dts|1996|03|19}}
|{{dts|1996|04|30}}
|[[Bolat Nurgaliyev]]
|
|[[Akezhan Kazhegeldin]]
|[[Bill Clinton]]
|

|-
|{{dts|2001|01|01}}
|{{dts|2001|02|14}}
|[[Kanat Saudabayev]]
|arrived Dec. 23 carrying credentials addressed to President Bush. We were unable to process him until such time as new President was sworn in.
|[[Kassym-Jomart Tokayev]]
|[[George W. Bush]]
|

|-
|{{dts|2007|07|16}}
|{{dts|2007|07|25}}
|[[Erlan Idrissov]]
|
|[[Karim Massimov]]
|[[George W. Bush]]
|

|-
|{{dts|2013|01|09}}
|{{dts|2013|01|14}}
|[[Kairat Umarov]]
|
|[[Serik Akhmetov]]
|[[Barack Obama]]
|
|}
{{coord|38.908611|-77.036111|display=title|region:BO_type:landmark}}

<ref>''[[Chief of Protocol]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20151015025314/http://www.state.gov/s/cpr/94069.htm]</ref>
*[[Kazakhstan–United States relations]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Ambassadors of Kazakhstan to the United States| ]]
[[Category:Lists of ambassadors of Kazakhstan |United States]]
[[Category:Lists of ambassadors to the United States|Kazakhstan]]

Kazakh ambassador to Russia

2017-02-22T06:41:42Z

Marcocapelle: rename category per Wikipedia:Categories_for_discussion/Log/2017_February_14#Category:Kazakh_ambassador

{{Infobox official post
|post = [[Ambassador]]
|body = [[Kazakhstan]] to [[Russia]]
|native_name =
|insignia =
|insigniasize =
|insigniacaption =
|department =
|image =
|alt =
|incumbent =[[Marat Tazhin]]
|incumbentsince ={{dts|2014|02|11}}
|style =
|residence =
|nominator =
|nominatorpost =
|appointer =
|appointerpost =
|termlength =
|inaugural = [[Tair Mansurov]]
|formation ={{dts|1994|01|01}}
|
|last =
|abolished =
|succession =
|deputy =
|salary =
|website =
}}

The '''[[Kazakhstan|Kazakh]] [[ambassador]] in [[Moscow]]''' is the official representative of the Government in [[Astana]] to the Government of [[Russia]].

== List of Representatives ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!| Diplomatic [[agrément]]/[[Diplomatic accreditation]]
!| [[ambassador]]
!| [[Russian language]] [[:ru:Послы Казахстана в России]]
!| [[Kazakh language]]
!| Observations
!| [[Prime Minister of Kazakhstan]]
!| [[List of heads of government of Russia]]
!| Term end

|-
|{{dts|1994|01|01}}
|[[Tair Mansurov]]
|[[:ru:Таир Мансуров ]]
|[[:kk:Тайыр Аймұхамедұлы Мансұров]]
|
|[[Akezhan Kazhegeldin]]
|[[Boris Yeltsin]]
|{{dts|2002|02|01}}

|-
|{{dts|1905|06|24}}
|[[Altynbek Sarsenbayev]]
|[[:ru:Алтынбек Сарсенбайулы ]]
|[[:kk:Алтынбек Сәрсенбайұлы]]
|The second of these killings was that of Altynbek Sarsenbayev, the former ambassador to Russia and former minister of communication, who advocated democratic reforms and who unsuccessfully attempted to privatize the state's monopoly of<ref>[https://books.google.de/books?id=yr5UAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60&dq=Altynbek+Sarsenbayev+ambassador&hl=de&sa=X&redir_esc=y Altynbek Sarsenbayev]</ref>
|[[Imangali Tasmagambetov]]
|[[Vladimir Putin]]
|{{dts|2003|11|01}}

|-
|{{dts|2003|11|01}}
|[[Krymbek Kusherbayev]]
|[[:ru:Крымбек Кушербаев ]]
|[[:kk:Қырымбек Елеуұлы Көшербаев]]
|KUSHERBAYEV Krymbek Ye. Kazakhstani diplomatist and politician; Akim (Governor) of Kyzylorda Oblast.
|[[Daniyal Akhmetov]]
|[[Vladimir Putin]]
|{{dts|2006|01|24}}

|-
|{{dts|2006|02|01}}
|[[Zhanseit Tuymenbayev]]
|[[:ru:Жансеит Туймебаев ]]
|[[:kk:Жансейіт Қансейітұлы Түймебаев]]
|
|[[Daniyal Akhmetov]]
|[[Vladimir Putin]]
|{{dts|2007|01|19}}

|-
|{{dts|2007|02|12}}
|[[Nurtai Abykayev]]
|[[:ru:Нуртай Абыкаев ]]
|[[:kk:Нұртай Әбіқайұлы Әбіқаев]]
|
|[[Karim Massimov]]
|[[Vladimir Putin]]
|{{dts|2008|10|14}}

|-
|{{dts|2008|11|11}}
|[[Adilbek Zhaksybekov]]
|[[:ru:Адильбек Джаксыбеков ]]
|
|
|[[Karim Massimov]]
|[[Dmitry Medvedev]]
|{{dts|2009|06|24}}

|-
|{{dts|2009|08|14}}
|[[Zautbek Turisbekov]]
|[[:ru:Заутбек Турисбеков ]]
|
|
|[[Karim Massimov]]
|[[Dmitry Medvedev]]
|{{dts|2012|04|25}}

|-
|{{dts|2012|04|25}}
|[[Galym Orazbakov]]
|[[:ru:Галым Оразбаков ]]
|[[:kk:Ғалым Ізбасарұлы Оразбақов]]
|
|[[Serik Akhmetov]]
|[[Dmitry Medvedev]]
|{{dts|2014|01|22}}

|-
|{{dts|2014|02|11}}
|[[Marat Tazhin]]
|[[:ru:Марат Тажин ]]
|[[:kk:Марат Мұханбетқазыұлы Тәжин]]
|
|[[Serik Akhmetov]]
|[[Dmitry Medvedev]]
|

|}
{{coord|55.792263|37.782924|display=title|region:BO_type:landmark}}

<ref>[http://www.kazembassy.ru/]</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Ambassadors of Kazakhstan to Russia| ]]
[[Category:Lists of ambassadors of Kazakhstan |Russia]]
[[Category:Lists of ambassadors to Russia|Kazakhstan]]

Category:Scythia

2017-02-10T23:42:30Z

Marcocapelle: removed Category:Eastern Europe; added Category:History of Eastern Europe using HotCat

{{Cat main|Scythia}}
{{Cat see also|Scythians}}
{{Commons cat|Scythia}}

[[Category:Ancient Russia]]
[[Category:Ancient history of Ukraine]]
[[Category:History of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Iron Age Europe]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Ukraine]]
[[Category:History of Eastern Europe]]

Category:Kazakhstani people of Jewish descent

2017-02-09T23:38:56Z

Marcocapelle: removed Category:Jews and Judaism in the Soviet Union; added Category:Jews and Judaism in Kazakhstan using HotCat

{{Commons category|Jewish people of Kazakhstan}}

[[Category:Asian people of Jewish descent]]
[[Category:People of Jewish descent by nationality]]
[[Category:Kazakhstani people by ethnic or national origin|Jewish]]
[[Category:Jews and Judaism in Kazakhstan|Descent]]
[[Category:Kazakhstani Jews]]

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

2016-12-10T17:33:30Z

Marcocapelle: removed Category:Risk; added Category:Health risk using HotCat

{{third-party|date=December 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2013}}
{{Infobox treaty
| name = Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
| long_name = Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity
| image =
| image_width =
| caption =
| type = Environmental
| date_drafted = 29 January 2000
| date_signed = 15 May 2000<ref>First signed by [[Kenya]]</ref>
| location_signed = [[Montreal|Montreal, Quebec]], [[Canada]] (originally scheduled for 1999 at [[Cartagena, Colombia]])
| date_sealed =
| date_effective = 11 September 2003
| condition_effective =
| date_expiration =
| signatories = 103
| parties = 170<ref name = parties/>
| depositor = [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]]
| language =
| languages = Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish
| website =
| wikisource =
}}
The '''Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity''' is an international agreement on [[biosafety]] as a supplement to the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] effective since 2003. The Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect [[biodiversity|biological diversity]] from the potential risks posed by [[genetically modified organisms]] resulting from modern [[biotechnology]].

The Biosafety Protocol makes clear that products from new technologies must be based on the [[precautionary principle]] and allow developing nations to balance public health against economic benefits. It will for example let countries ban imports of [[genetically modified organisms]] if they feel there is not enough scientific evidence that the product is [[safe]] and requires exporters to label shipments containing genetically altered commodities such as corn or cotton.

The required number of 50 instruments of ratification/accession/approval/acceptance by countries was reached in May 2003. In accordance with the provisions of its Article 37, the Protocol entered into force on 11 September 2003. As of March 2015, the Protocol had 170 parties, which includes 167 [[United Nations member states]], the [[State of Palestine]], and the [[European Union]].<ref name=parties>{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src%3DTREATY%26mtdsg_no%3DXXVII-8-a%26chapter%3D27%26lang%3Den |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-03-04 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305105655/https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-8-a&chapter=27&lang=en |archivedate=5 March 2014 |df=dmy }}.</ref>

==Objective==
In accordance with the [[precautionary principle|precautionary approach]], contained in Principle 15 of the [[Rio Declaration on Environment and Development]], the objective of the Protocol is to contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of 'living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology' that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health, and specifically focusing on transboundary movements (Article 1 of the Protocol, SCBD 2000).

==Living modified organisms (LMOs)==
The protocol defines a 'living modified organism' as any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology, and 'living organism' means any biological entity capable of transferring or replicating genetic material, including sterile organisms, viruses and viroids.<ref name=CartagenaGlossary>[http://www.gmo-free-regions.org/glossary.html Glossary]</ref> 'Modern biotechnology' is defined in the Protocol to mean the application of in vitro nucleic acid techniques, or fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family, that overcome natural physiological reproductive or recombination barriers and are not techniques used in traditional breeding and selection.<ref name=CartagenaGlossary /> 'Living modified organism (LMO) Products' are defined as processed material that are of living modified organism origin, containing detectable novel combinations of replicable genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology (for instance, flour from GM maize).<ref name=CartagenaGlossary /> 'Living modified organism intended for direct use as food or feed, or for processing (LMO-FFP)' are agricultural commodities from GM crops.<ref name=CartagenaGlossary /> Overall the term 'living modified organisms' is equivalent to [[genetically modified organism]] – the Protocol did not make any distinction between these terms and did not use the term 'genetically modified organism.'<ref>[http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/ WHO 20 Questions on biotechnology]</ref>

==Precautionary approach==
One of the outcomes of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (also known as the Earth Summit) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992, was the adoption of the [[Rio Declaration on Environment and Development]], which contains 27 principles to underpin sustainable development. Commonly known as the [[precautionary principle]], Principle 15 states that "In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation."

Elements of the precautionary approach are reflected in a number of the provisions of the Protocol, such as:
* The preamble, reaffirming "the precautionary approach contained in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on environment and Development";
* Article 1, indicating that the objective of the Protocol is "in accordance with the precautionary approach contained in Principle 15 of the [[Rio Declaration on Environment and Development]]";
* Article 10.6 and 11.8, which states "Lack of scientific certainty due to insufficient relevant scientific information and knowledge regarding the extent of the potential adverse effects of an LMO on biodiversity, taking into account risks to human health, shall not prevent a Party of import from taking a decision, as appropriate, with regard to the import of the LMO in question, in order to avoid or minimize such potential adverse effects."; and
* Annex III on risk assessment, which notes that "Lack of scientific knowledge or scientific consensus should not necessarily be interpreted as indicating a particular level of risk, an absence of risk, or an acceptable risk."

==Application==
The Protocol applies to the transboundary movement, transit, handling and use of all living modified organisms that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health (Article 4 of the Protocol, SCBD 2000).

==Parties and non-parties==
The governing body of the Protocol is called the Conference of the Parties to the Convention serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Protocol (also the COP-MOP). The main function of this body is to review the implementation of the Protocol and make decisions necessary to promote its effective operation. Decisions under the Protocol can only be taken by Parties to the Protocol. Parties to the Convention that are not Parties to the Protocol may only participate as observers in the proceedings of meetings of the COP-MOP.

The Protocol addresses the obligations of Parties in relation to the transboundary movements of LMOs to and from non-Parties to the Protocol. The transboundary movements between Parties and non-Parties must be carried out in a manner that is consistent with the objective of the Protocol. Parties are required to encourage non-Parties to adhere to the Protocol and to contribute information to the Biosafety Clearing-House.

==Relationship with the WTO==
A number of agreements under the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), such as the [[Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures]] (SPS Agreement) and the [[Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade]] (TBT Agreement), and the [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (TRIPs), contain provisions that are relevant to the Protocol. The Protocol states in its preamble that parties:
* Recognize that trade and environment agreements should be mutually supportive;
* Emphasize that the Protocol is not interpreted as implying a change in the rights and obligations under any existing agreements; and
* Understand that the above recital is not intended to subordinate the Protocol to other international agreements.

==Main features==

===Overview of features===
The Protocol promotes biosafety by establishing rules and procedures for the safe transfer, handling, and use of LMOs, with specific focus on transboundary movements of LMOs. It features a set of procedures including one for LMOs that are to be intentionally introduced into the environment called the [[#AIA|advance informed agreement]] procedure, and one for [[#LMOs-FFP|LMOs that are intended to be used directly as food or feed or for processing]]. [[#Parties|Parties to the Protocol]] must ensure that LMOs are [[#HTPI|handled, packaged and transported]] under conditions of safety. Furthermore, the shipment of LMOs subject to transboundary movement must be accompanied by appropriate [[#HTPI|documentation]] specifying, among other things, identity of LMOs and contact point for further information. These procedures and requirements are designed to provide importing Parties with the necessary information needed for making informed decisions about whether or not to accept LMO imports and for handling them in a safe manner.

The Party of import makes its decisions in accordance with scientifically sound risk assessments. The Protocol sets out principles and methodologies on how to conduct a risk assessment. In case of insufficient relevant scientific information and knowledge, the Party of import [[#precaution|may use precaution]] in making their decisions on import. Parties may also take into account, consistent with their international obligations, socio-economic considerations in reaching decisions on import of LMOs.

Parties must also adopt measures for managing any risks identified by the risk assessment, and they must take necessary steps in the event of accidental release of LMOs.

To facilitate its implementation, the Protocol establishes a [[#BCH|Biosafety Clearing-House]] for Parties to exchange information, and contains a number of important provisions, including capacity-building, a financial mechanism, compliance procedures, and requirements for public awareness and participation.

===Procedures for moving LMOs across borders===

====Advance Informed Agreement====
The "Advance Informed Agreement" (AIA) procedure applies to the first intentional transboundary movement of LMOs for intentional introduction into the environment of the Party of import. It includes four components: notification by the Party of export or the exporter, acknowledgment of receipt of notification by the Party of import, the decision procedure, and opportunity for review of decisions. The purpose of this procedure is to ensure that importing countries have both the opportunity and the capacity to assess risks that may be associated with the LMO before agreeing to its import. The Party of import must indicate the reasons on which its decisions are based (unless consent is unconditional). A Party of import may, at any time, in light of new scientific information, review and change a decision. A Party of export or a notifier may also request the Party of import to review its decisions.

However, the Protocol's AIA procedure does not apply to certain categories of LMOs:
* LMOs in transit;
* LMOs destined for contained use;
* [[#LMOs-FFP|LMOs intended for direct use as food or feed or for processing]]

While the Protocol's AIA procedure does not apply to certain categories of LMOs, Parties have the right to regulate the importation on the basis of domestic legislation. There are also allowances in the Protocol to declare certain LMOs exempt from application of the AIA procedure.

====LMOs intended for food or feed, or for processing====
LMOs intended for direct use as food or feed, or processing (LMOs-FFP) represent a large category of agricultural commodities. The Protocol, instead of using the AIA procedure, establishes a more simplified procedure for the transboundary movement of LMOs-FFP. Under this procedure, A Party must inform other Parties through the [[Biosafety Clearing-House]], within 15 days, of its decision regarding domestic use of LMOs that may be subject to transboundary movement.

Decisions by the Party of import on whether or not to accept the import of LMOs-FFP are taken under its domestic regulatory framework that is consistent with the [[#Objective|objective of the Protocol]]. A developing country Party or a Party with an economy in transition may, in the absence of a domestic regulatory framework, declare through the [[Biosafety Clearing-House]] that its decisions on the first import of LMOs-FFP will be taken in accordance with risk assessment as set out in the Protocol and time frame for decision-making.

===Handling, transport, packaging and identification===
The Protocol provides for practical requirements that are deemed to contribute to the safe movement of LMOs. Parties are required to take measures for the safe handling, packaging and transportation of LMOs that are subject to transboundary movement. The Protocol specifies requirements on identification by setting out what information must be provided in documentation that should accompany transboundary shipments of LMOs. It also leaves room for possible future development of standards for handling, packaging, transport and identification of LMOs by the meeting of the Parties to the Protocol.

Each Party is required to take measures ensuring that LMOs subject to intentional transboundary movement are accompanied by documentation identifying the LMOs and providing contact details of persons responsible for such movement. The details of these requirements vary according to the intended use of the LMOs, and, in the case of LMOs for food, feed or for processing, they should be further addressed by the governing body of the Protocol. (Article 18 of the Protocol, SCBD 2000).

The first meeting of the Parties adopted decisions outlining identification requirements for different categories of LMOs (Decision BS-I/6, SCBD 2004). However, the second meeting of the Parties failed to reach agreement on the detailed requirements to identify [[#LMOs-FFP|LMOs intended for direct use as food, feed or for processing]] and will need to reconsider this issue at its third meeting in March 2006.

===Biosafety Clearing-House===
The Protocol established a [[Biosafety Clearing-House]] (BCH), in order to facilitate the exchange of scientific, technical, environmental and legal information on, and experience with, living modified organisms; and to assist Parties to implement the Protocol (Article 20 of the Protocol, SCBD 2000). It was established in a phased manner, and the first meeting of the Parties approved the transition from the pilot phase to the fully operational phase, and adopted modalities for its operations (Decision BS-I/3, SCBD 2004).

==See also==
* [[Biosafety Clearing-House]]
* [[Substantial equivalence]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

* Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2000) ''Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity: text and annexes''. Montreal, Quebec, Canada. ISBN 92-807-1924-6
* Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2004) ''Global Biosafety – From concepts to action: Decisions adopted by the first meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety''. Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

==External links==
{{wikibooks|Genes, Technology and Policy}}
* [http://www.cbd.int/biosafety/ Biosafety Protocol Homepage]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131017175730/http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-8-a&chapter=27&lang=en Ratifications] at depositary
* [http://bch.cbd.int Biosafety Clearing-House Central Portal]
* [https://bch.cbd.int/protocol/text/ Text of the Protocol]
* [http://en.biosafetyscanner.org/mappa_cartaghena.php Map showing the state of the ratification of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/cpbcbd/cpbcbd.html Introductory note by Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, procedural history note and audiovisual material] on the ''Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity '' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/historicarchives.html Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]

{{Genetic engineering}}

{{Authority control}}

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Iris tubergeniana

2016-09-22T06:16:48Z

Marcocapelle: category merged per Wikipedia:Categories_for_discussion/Log/2016_September_14#Category:Biota_of_Turkestan

{{italic title}}{{taxobox
|name = ''Iris tubergeniana''
|image =
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Monocots]]
|ordo = [[Asparagales]]
|familia = [[Iridaceae]]
|subfamilia = [[Iridoideae]]
|tribus = [[Irideae]]
|genus = ''[[Iris (plant)|Iris]]''
|subgenus = ''[[Iris subg. Scorpiris|Scorpiris]]''
|species = '''''Iris tubergeniana'''''
|binomial = ''Iris tubergeniana''
|binomial_authority = [[Michael Foster (physiologist)|Sir Michael Foster]]
|synonyms = {{Species list|Juno tubergeniana|(Foster) Vved.<ref>{{cite web| title= Iris tubergeniana Foster | date=18 April 2012 | url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-322520 | publisher=theplantlist.org | accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref>}}
}}
'''''Iris tubergeniana''''' (also commonly known as ) is a species in the genus ''[[Iris (plant)|Iris]]'', it is also in the subgenus of [[Iris subg. Scorpiris|Scorpiris]]. It is a [[bulbous]] [[perennial plant|perennial]]

It was published by [[Michael Foster (physiologist)|Sir Michael Foster]] as 'Iris tubergeniana' in Gardeners Chronicles, Series 3 in 1899.<ref>{{cite web| title= Iris tubergeniana Foster, Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 25: 225 (1899). | url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=322520 | publisher=theplantlist.org | accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref>

In 1941, [[Alexi Vvedenski]] published it as 'Juno tubergeniana' in 'Flora Uzbekistan' (edited by Schreder).<ref>{{cite web| title=Iridaceae Juno tubergeniana (Foster) Vved. | url=http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idPlantNameSearch.do?id=439712-1 | publisher=ipni.org | accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref> This was later re-classified as a synonym.

It was introduced by the company of 'Van Tubergen' from [[Haarlem]], the [[Netherlands]]. It was then named after the company.<ref name=onego>{{cite web | title=Juno | url=http://flower.onego.ru/lukov/juno_v.html | publisher=flower.onego.ru | accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref>

Iris tubergeniana is now an accepted name by the [[Royal Horticultural Society|RHS]].<ref name=RHS>{{cite web|title=Iris tubergeniana |url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/horticulturaldatabase/hortdatabase.asp?ID=141778 |publisher=www.rhs.org.uk| accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref>

It was also cited in 'The Plantsman' in 2003, on page 54.<ref name=RHS/>

It is better grown in an [[alpine house]], but it could be grown outside in sunny sheltered sites.<ref name=alpine>{{cite web | title=Iris tubergeniana | url=http://encyclopaedia.alpinegardensociety.net/plants/Iris/tubergeniana | publisher= encyclopaedia.alpinegardensociety.net | accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref>

==Habit==
Iris tubergeniana has a similar form to [[Iris orchioides]] and [[Iris caucasica]].<ref name=Lynch>Richard Lynch {{Google books|grvYTul5CSUC|The Book of the Iris | page=177-178}}</ref>

It has a slender bulb,<ref name=Lynch/> about 2 cm thick.<ref name=FloraofUSSR>{{cite web|first=V.L. | last=Komarov | year=1935 | title=Akademiya Nauk SSSR (FLORA of the U.S.S.R.) Vol. IV | publisher=archive.org | url=https://archive.org/stream/floraofussr04bota/floraofussr04bota_djvu.txt | accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref> With cord-like roots.<ref name=onego/>

The short flowering stem is about 10–15 cm (4 in) high at flowering time.<ref name=onego/><ref name=Lynch/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/>

It has 1-3 flowers,<ref name=onego/><ref name=cassidy>{{cite book |last1=Cassidy |first1=George E.| last2=Linnegar |first2=Sidney |date=1987 |edition=Revised |title= Growing Irises|url= |location=Bromley |publisher=Christopher Helm |page=148 |isbn=0-88192-089-4 }}</ref> blooming between March and April,<ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=pacific>{{cite web| title=Juno irises S-Z | date=14 April 2014 | url=http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/JunoIrisesThree | publisher= pacificbulbsociety.org |accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref> which are unscented.<ref name=onego/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/>

It has a perianth tube measuring between 4.5–5 cm long, which is tinged slightlly greenish purple.<ref name=onego/>
It has (5.6 cm wide) flowers,<ref name=onego/><ref name=alpine/> in shades of yellow, from deep yellow<ref name=cassidy/> to bright yellow<ref name=onego/> to greenish-yellow.<ref name=pacific/>

The falls are about 1.5in long,<ref name=Lynch/> and have a frilled, dissected beard-like crest<ref name=signa>{{cite web| first=Peter | last=Taggart | title=Iris tubergeniana | date=6 January 2010 | url=http://www.signa.org/index.pl?Iris-tubergeniana | accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref> with violet-green spots on the sides of the ridge.<ref name=alpine/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/> It has very small standards (about 10 mm).<ref name=onego/><ref name=Lynch/>

It has generally about 6 leaves, 2.5-3in tall, 0.5-2in wide (1.5-2.5 cm) at the widest point,<ref name=onego/><ref name=Lynch/><ref name=FloraofUSSR/> which are almost fully mature at flowering time.<ref name=alpine/>
They are pale green<ref name=FloraofUSSR/> - light glaucous green, pointed or sickle shaped,<ref name=onego/> striated, with a margin.<ref name=Lynch/> The margin is scabrous/horned.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/>

It has (capsule) fruits in late spring-early summer.<ref name=onego/>

==Native==
Iris tubergeniana is found in Central Asia and the former states of USSR,<ref name=alpine/><ref name=cassidy/> [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Turkestan]].<ref name=alpine/><ref>{{cite web| title=Turkestanian Endemic Plants |
url=http://www.terrestrial-biozones.net/endemic%20floras/Turkestanian%20Endemics.html | publisher= terrestrial-biozones.net | accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref>

They prefer the red clay and gravelly slopes of the foothills of mountains.<ref name=alpine/><ref name=FloraofUSSR /><ref name=pacific/>

Can be found on Mount [[Chimgan]] in Tajikistan,<ref>{{cite web | title=TAJIKISTAN & UZBEKISTAN | url=http://www.greentours.co.uk/Asia/TAJIKISTAN-1/ | publisher=greentours.co.uk | accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref> on [[Karatau]] in [[Kazakhstan]]<ref name=onego/> and beside the river [[Syr Darya]] in Uzbekistan.<ref name=signa/>

Can be found near the town of Dzabaghly near the [[Aksu Canyon]] in the [[Tien Shen]] Mountains.<ref>{{cite web | first=John | last=Shipton | date=22 April 2008 | title= Tulip Meadows of Kazakhstan and the Tien Shan Mountains | url=http://www.naturetrek.co.uk/reports_new/KAZ04_report_080401_Tulip_Meadows_of_Kazakhstan_The_Tien_Shan_Mountains.pdf | page=5 | format=pdf | accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.alpinegardensociety.ie/sources/AGS%20Newsletter%2047%20Winter%202007.pdf Image of Iris tubergeniana appears on the cover]
*[http://www.plantarium.ru/page/image/id/76925.html Image of Iris tubergeniana on Ugam ridge in Kazakhstan]

{{Commons category-inline|Iris tubergeniana}}
{{Wikispecies-inline|Iris tubergeniana}}

[[Category:Iris (plant)|tubergeniana]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1853]]
[[Category:Flora of Central Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Flora of Tajikistan]]
[[Category:Flora of Kazakhstan]]

Iris narbutii

2016-09-22T06:15:48Z

Marcocapelle: category merged per Wikipedia:Categories_for_discussion/Log/2016_September_14#Category:Biota_of_Turkestan

{{italic title}}{{taxobox
|name = ''Iris graeberiana''
|image =
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Monocots]]
|ordo = [[Asparagales]]
|familia = [[Iridaceae]]
|subfamilia = [[Iridoideae]]
|tribus = [[Irideae]]
|genus = ''[[Iris (plant)|Iris]]''
|subgenus = ''[[Iris subg. Scorpiris|Scorpiris]]''
|species = '''''Iris narbutii'''''
|binomial = ''Iris narbutii''
|binomial_authority = [[Olga Fedtschenko|O.Fedtsch]]
|synonyms = {{Species list|Iris caucasica var. oculata|(Maxim)|Iris dengerensis|(B.Fedtsch.)|Iris hissarica|O.Fedtsch. ex Kneuck.|Juno dengerensis|(B.Fedtsch.) Soják|Juno narbutii| (O.Fedtsch.) Vved.<ref>{{cite web|title=Iris narbutii O.Fedtsch. |date=23 March 2012 |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-322160 | publisher=www.theplantlist.org |accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref>}}
}}
'''''Iris narbutii''''' is a species in the genus ''[[Iris (plant)|Iris]]'', it is also in the subgenus of [[Iris subg. Scorpiris|Scorpiris]]. It is a [[bulbous]] [[perennial plant|perennial]]. It is sometimes misspelt as 'Iris narbuti'.<ref>{{cite web| first=Chris | last=Gardener| date=18 April 2011 | title=Tajikistan & Uzbekistan, A Reconnaissance Report | url=http://www.greentours.co.uk/doc/Trip%20Report%20Tajikistan%20Recce%202011%20edited.pdf | format=pdf | page=5 | publisher=greentours.co.uk | accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=Iris | date= |url=http://www.bulbsbirdsnmore.com.au/Amaryllid_Obsession/Iris.html | publisher=bulbsbirdsnmore.com.au | accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref>

It was first published as 'Juno Narbutii' by [[Olga Fedtschenko]] in 'Izvestiya Imperatorskago Obscestva Ljubitelej Estestvoznanija, Antropologii i Etnografii, Sostojascago pri (Imperatorskom) Moskovskom Universitete' in 1902.<ref>{{cite web|title=Iris narbutii O.Fedtsch. | url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=322160 |publisher=kew.org |accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref>
It was later published as 'Iris Narbutii' by [[Boris Fedtschenko]] in Bull. Jard. Bot. St. Petersb. Vol.V page157 in 1905.<ref name=FloraofUSSR>{{cite web|first=V.L. | last=Komarov | year=1935 | title=Akademiya Nauk SSSR (FLORA of the U.S.S.R.) Vol. IV | publisher=archive.org | url=https://archive.org/stream/floraofussr04bota/floraofussr04bota_djvu.txt | pages=430–431 | accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref>

Iris narbutii is now an accepted name by the [[Royal Horticultural Society|RHS]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Iris narbutii |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/20410/Iris-narbutii-(J)/Details |publisher=www.rhs.org.uk| accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref>

It is listed in 1995 in 'Vascular plants of Russia and adjacent states (the former USSR)' by Czerepanov, S. K.<ref>{{Google books|52fdbx9XgC4C|Vascular plants of Russia and adjacent states (the former USSR)|page=281}}</ref>

It may have been named after 'Narbuta Beg'(1774-1798), a grandson of 'Abd al-Karim' ([[Khanate of Kokand]]) of the [[Fergana Valley]], [[Central Asia]], where the iris was found.<ref>Ahmad Hasan Dani and Vadim Mikhaĭlovich Masson (Editors) {{Google books|AzG5llo3YCMC|History of Civilizations of Central Asia Volume V: Development in contrast from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century |page=74}}</ref>

It can be seen growing in the 'Le Grand Clos Botanique Garden' in [[Bourgueil]], France.<ref>{{cite web | title=iris botanique | url=http://irisbotanique.over-blog.com/article-le-grand-clos-botanique-garden-73882267.html | publisher= irisbotanique.over-blog.com | accessdate=13 October 2014}}</ref>

It can be cultivated in pots,<ref name=irisbotanique>{{cite web| title=Chapter III bulbous iris | url= http://irisbotanique.over-blog.com/15-index.html |publisher= irisbotanique.over-blog.com | accessdate=13 October 2014}}</ref> or in well drained soils in sunshine (like other Juno irises).<ref name=October>{{cite web | first=Jim | last=Almond | title=PLANT OF THE MONTH - OCTOBER | url=http://freespace.virgin.net/almond.jim/Portraits.htm | publisher=freespace.virgin.net | accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref>

==Habit==
Iris narbutii has a brown bulb with papery tunic,<ref name=irisbotanique/> the bulb is approx. {{convert|2|cm}} in diameter.<ref name=onego>{{cite web| title=Juno | url=http://flower.onego.ru/lukov/juno_v.html | publisher=flower.onego.ru | accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref> It has thickened roots,<ref name=FloraofUSSR/> which look similar to fat short pointed tubers.<ref>{{cite web| first=Peter | last=Taggart | title=Iris narbutii | date=6 January 2010 | url=http://www.signa.org/index.pl?Iris-narbutii | publisher=signa.org (Species Iris Group of North America) | accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref>

One of the shorter Juno irises, similar to [[Iris Lepthoriza]],<ref name=irisbotanique/> only growing to a height of {{cvt|5|-|10|cm}}.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=October/><ref name=cassidy>{{cite book |last1=Cassidy |first1=G.E.| last2=Linnegar |first2=S.|date=1987 |edition=Revised |title= Growing Irise |location=Bromley |publisher=Christopher Helm |page=147 |isbn=0-88192-089-4 }}</ref><ref name=american/>

It blooms in early-mid spring,<ref name=onego/> flowering between January to April depending on the weather conditions.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=October/>
It has 1 or 2 scentless flowers per bulb stem.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=onego/><ref name=cassidy/>

The flowers come in a range of shades between greenish-yellow to pale violet.<ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=October/><ref name=cassidy/>
The green-purple perianth tube is about {{cvt|4|-|5|cm}} long.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=onego/> It has standards ({{cvt|3.5|-|5|cm|disp=or}}) that hang downwards.<ref name=October/><ref name=american>{{cite web| title=(SPEC) Iris narbutii Fedts. | date=24 March 2010 | url=http://wiki.irises.org/bin/view/Spec/SpecNarbutii | publisher=wiki.irises.org (American Iris Society) | accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref><ref name=pacific>{{cite web| first=Jim | last=Waddick | title=Juno irises J-R | url=http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/JunoIrisesTwo | publisher=pacificbulbsociety.org | accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref>
It has falls that start upright, but then the blade bends downwards, with a dark violet blotch at the tip. They have a raised white crest surrounded by a yellow zone/area.<ref name=irisbotanique/><ref name=October/><ref name=cassidy/><ref name=american/><ref name=pacific/> The yellow zone can sometimes have a dark purple ring around it.<ref name=onego/>

It has whitish pollen.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/>

The thin, channelled dark green leaves emerge before the flowers, they are 5–25 mm wide (close to the base of the plant).<ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=October/><ref name=onego/>
They gradually narrow to an apex (falcate-like, lanceolate)<ref name=irisbotanique/> and have a very visible white edging/margin.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/>

==Native==
Iris narbutii is from Central Asia.<ref name=cassidy/><ref name=pacific/> Originally found on the slopes of [[Syr-Darya]] river valley.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/><ref name=american/>

It is found on the rocky, gravelly slopes of the mountains of western [[Tien Shan]] and southern [[Pamir Mountains]].<ref name=onego/> Also seen near to [[Samarkand]] and [[Tashkent]].<ref name=FloraofUSSR/>

Olga Fedtschenko had speculated that the plants from west Tien Shan, could be a separate species, due to their paler colour.<ref name=FloraofUSSR/>

In Chulbair Mountains, [[Uzbekistan]], it is a threatened species and close to extinction.<ref name=irisbotanique/>

==Known hybrids==
*Iris narbutii 'Kara Kaga'<ref name=pacific/>

In Russia, Vvedenskii had noted several natural hybrids including;
J. narbutii x [[Iris maracandica|J maracandica]] (near [[Jizzakh|Jizzak]], Uzbekistan),
J. narbutii x [[Iris orchioides|J. Orchioides]] and
J. narbutii x [[Iris subdecolorata|J. subdecolorata]] (near Darbaza, [[Kazakhstan]]).<ref name=onego/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.flickr.com/photos/22799848@N03/2212138250/ Image of Iris narbuttii on flickr]
*[http://www.edgewoodgardens.net/Plants_album/The%20Plants%20-%20%20Complete%20Collection/Iridaceae/Iris/Subgen%20Scorpiris/I.%20narbutii/index.html Many images of Iris narbutii]

{{Commons category-inline|Iris narbutii}}
{{Wikispecies-inline|Iris narbutii}}

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This category groups articles relating to the [[military history]] of the [[Khazar]] [[Khaganate]].

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