Afaqi Khoja revolts

2017-01-11T18:20:30Z

GenQuest: Disambiguated: khalifa → Imam

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Khoja revolts
|partof=
|image=Recapture of Kaschgar and capture of the rebel chief.jpg
|caption=Qing victory over the Afaqis in Kashgar
|date=1826<ref name="Thum2014">{{cite book|author=Rian Thum|title=The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pP6EBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA233|date=13 October 2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-59855-3|page=233}}</ref>–1857
|place=[[Kashgar]], [[Xinjiang]]
|result=Qing victory
|territory=
|combatant1=[[Qing Dynasty]], Qara Taghlik Khojas (Ishaqi Khojas)
|combatant2=[[Khoja (Turkestan)|Aq Taghlik Khojas]] (Afaqi Khojas) ''Supported by'': [[Kokand Khanate]]
|combatant3=
|commander1=[[Daoguang Emperor]] [[Saertuke Changling|Chang Ling]]<ref>http://www.dartmouth.edu/~qing/WEB/CH'ANG-LING.html</ref><ref>http://www.dartmouth.edu/~qing/WEB/NA-YEN-CH'ENG.html</ref> Zhang Mingtang Eldemboo<ref>http://www.dartmouth.edu/~qing/WEB/E-LE-TENG-PAO.html</ref>
|commander2=[[Khoja Zia-ud-din Akhund]] [[Jahangir Khoja]]<ref name="Dillon2014">{{cite book|author=Michael Dillon|title=Xinjiang and the Expansion of Chinese Communist Power: Kashgar in the Early Twentieth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2MtBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=1 August 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-64721-8|pages=8–}}</ref>{{Executed}} [[Yusuf Khoja]] [[Ehsan Khan Khoja]] [[Khoja Buzurg Khan]] [[Khoja Wali Khan]]<ref name="Thum2014"/> [[Khoja Kichik Khan]] [[Khoja Tawakkul Khan]] ''Supported by'': Muhammad Ali Khan
|commander3=
|strength1= [[Eight Banners]], Manchu bannerman [[Green Standard Army]] Han Chinese and Chinese Hui Muslim militia Qara taghlik Ishaqiyya Turkic Muslim followers
|strength2=Aq taghlik Afaqiyya Turkic Muslim followers [[Dolan people]]{{sfn|Bellér-Hann|2008|pages=21 ff.}}
|strength3=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
|casualties3=
}}
During the early and mid-19th century in China, the Afaqi [[Khoja (Turkestan)|Khojas]] in the [[Khanate of Kokand]] (descended from Khoja Burhanuddin) unsuccessfully tried to invade [[Kashgar]] and regain [[Altishahr]] from the [[Qing dynasty]].

==History==
[[Hui people|Hui]] merchants fought for the [[Qing dynasty]] in 1826 against Turkic Muslim rebels led by the [[Jahangir Khoja]]. The Muslim [[Khoja (Turkestan)|Khojas]] and [[Khanate of Kokand]] were resisted by the Qing army and [[Dungan people|Dungan]] merchants. Among those who died in battle in 1826 against [[Jahangir Khoja]]'s forces was Zhang Mingtang, who led the merchant militia of [[Kashgar]].{{sfn|Millward|1998|pages=171 ff.}}

During the 1826 invasion, Jahangir Khoja's forces took six [[Dungan people#Migration from China|Hui Muslims as slaves]] (Nian Dengxi, Liu Qifeng, Wu Erqi, Ma Tianxi, Tian Guan and Li Shengzhao) and sold them in Central Asia. They escaped and returned to China via Russia.{{sfn|Millward|1998|pages=167 f.}}

When the Khojas attacked in 1826 and 1830, the Yarkand, Kashgar, Dungan and merchant militia fought them off. The Dungan were also part of the Qing [[Green Standard Army]].<ref name="CrossleySiu2006">
{{cite book
|author1=Pamela Kyle Crossley
|author2=Helen F. Siu
|author3=Donald S. Sutton
|title=Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EtNVMUx9qIIC&pg=PA125#v=onepage&q&f=false
|date=1 January 2006
|publisher=University of California Press
|isbn=978-0-520-23015-6|pages=125–}}</ref>

Ishaqi (Black Mountain) Khoja followers helped the [[Qing]] oppose Jahangir Khoja's Afaqi (White Mountain) Khoja faction. The Black Mountain Khojas (Qarataghliks) supported the Qing against the White Mountain (Aqtaghlik) Khoja invasions.{{sfn|Liu|Faure|1996|pages=75 ff.}} The Qing–Black Mountain Khoja alliance helped bring down Jahangir Khoja's White Mountain rule.{{sfn|Liu|Faure|1996|pages=79 ff.}}

Chinese rule in Xinjiang was supported by the Black Mountain Turkic Muslims, called ''Khitai-parast'' (China worshipers, or followers of China), who were based in [[Artux|Artush]]. The White Mountain Aqtaghlik Khojas, opposed to China, were called ''sayyid parast'' (''sayyid'' worshipers or followers, based in [[Kucha]]) and guided by Turkic nationalism. The Qarataghliks did not say ''[[basmala|bismillah]]'' before eating melons; the Aqtaghliks did, and there was no intermarriage between the factions.<ref name="Forbes1986">{{cite book|author=Andrew D. W. Forbes|title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=9 October 1986|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-25514-1|pages=33–34}}</ref>{{sfn|Bellér-Hann|2008|pages=237 ff.}}

Ishaqi followers mounted opposition to forces backed by Jahangir Khoja's Kokandi, and the Ishaqis aided Qing loyalists. Ishaqi followers opposed the "debauchery" and "pillage" of Afaqi rule under Jahangir Khoja, and allied with Qing loyalists against Jahangir.<ref>{{cite book|author=L. J. Newby|title=The Empire And the Khanate: A Political History of Qing Relations With Khoqand C1760-1860|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTmO416hNQ8C&pg=PA100#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-14550-8|pages=99–100}}</ref>

In the Kokandi and Jahangir invasions, the Qing were assisted by the Black Hat Muslims (the Ishaqiyya) against the Afaqiyya.{{sfn|Millward|1998|pages=216 ff.}} The Kokandi spread false information that the local Turkic Muslims were conspiring with them, which reached the ears of Chinese merchants in Kashgar.{{sfn|Millward|1998|pages=220 ff.}}

Yarkand was besieged by the Kokandi. The Chinese merchants and Qing military declined to battle openly, taking cover inside fortifications and killing Kokandi troops with guns and cannons. Yarkand's Turkic Muslims helped the Qing capture or drive off the remaining Kokandis, and some prisoners were executed after capture.{{sfn|Millward|1998|pages=224 ff.}}

Kokandi-supported Khoja of the White Mountain faction first launched his attack on the Qing in 1825, killing Chinese civilians and the small Chinese military force as he attacked [[Kashgar]]. They killed the Turkic Muslim pro-Chinese Governor of Kashgar, and the Jahangir took Kashgar in 1826. In [[Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture|Ili]], the Chinese called up a large army of [[nomads]] from the northern and eastern [[steppe]]s and 80,000 Dungans to fight Jahangir.{{sfn|Tyler|2003|page=66}} Jahangir brought his 50,000-strong army to fight them at Maralbashi, and the armies began the fight by challenging each other to a duel between two champions of their armies. A Kokandi with a rifle and sword was the champion of Jahangir, and a [[Kalmyk people|Kalmyk]] archer was the champion of the Chinese. The Kalmyk killed the Kokandi with an arrow, and the two armies then joined in battle. The Chinese army overwhelmed Jahangir's, which tried to escape.

Jahangir hid, but was turned over to the Chinese by the Kyrgyz; he was tortured and put to death. Yusuf, Jahangir's brother, invaded the Qing in 1830 and besieged Kashgar.{{sfn|Tyler|2003|page=67}} The Qing and Kokandi negotiated an end to the conflict. The [[Aqsaqal|Aksakal]] was the Kokandi representative in Kashgar after China and Kokand signed a treaty ending the conflict.<ref name="ThomasWhitlock2008">
{{cite book
|author1=Huw Thomas
|author2=Monica Whitlock
|author3=Markus Hauser
|title=Tajikistan and the High Pamirs: A Companion and Guide
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BOoVAQAAMAAJ&q=aksakal+behead&dq=aksakal+behead&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lnGsUOvILpG88wSkrIGIDg&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBA
|year=2008
|publisher=Odyssey Books & Guides
|isbn=978-962-217-773-4
|page=612
}}</ref>

The Chinese used 3,000 criminals to help crush the 1846 Revolt of the Seven Khojas, and the local Turki Muslims refused to help the Khojas because the Khojas had abducted the Chinese-supporting Muslims' daughters and wives. Wali Khan, known for his brutality and tyranny, led a rebellion in 1855 and began by attacking Kashgar.{{sfn|Tyler|2003|page=68}} The Chinese were massacred, and the daughters and wives of subordinates of the loyalist Turki governor were seized. [[Adolf Schlagintweit]], a German, was beheaded by Wali Khan and his head put on display. Wali Khan would kill courtiers under the flimsiest of pretexts. If a call to prayer was too loud, he would kill the muezzin. A 12,000-strong Chinese army defeated Wali Khan's army of 20,000 in a 77-day battle. Wali Khan was abandoned by his "allies" because of his cruelty; the Chinese inflicted harsh reprisals on his forces, and had his son and father-in-law executed.{{sfn|Tyler|2003|page=69}} The [[Uyghurs]] of Altishahr despised Wali Khan's forcible introduction of Kokandi culture, his suppression of Kashgari culture and his brutality.{{sfn|Bellér-Hann|2008|pages=19 ff.}}

=={{anchor|History of the khojas}}The khojas==
The disagreement with [[Bukhara]] which broke out soon after Madali's accession{{clarify|date=November 2016|reason=Who is Madali?}} ended peaceably in 1825; the following year he joined Jihangyr Hodja (from the Appak family) to recover Kashgar, from whose throne his ancestors were driven by the Chinese in 1756. After a few skirmishes Madali gave himself the title of ''Ghazi'' (conqueror of the infidels); following a 12-day campaign he returned home, leaving part of his troops to help Jihangyr Hodja (who took Kashgar) and making himself temporary master of the country. A Chinese army of 70,000 soon arrived, and in 1827 the Khokandians withdrew.

In 1828–29 another attempt was made on Kashgar by Yusnf Hodja, Jihangyr's elder brother. Madali Khan again supplied his army and his best generals. Again Kashgar, Yangy-Hissar and Yarkand were taken, and again the Khokandians withdrew at the approach of a Chinese army. Yusuf Hodja escaped to Khokand, where he died. Years later, thousands of Kashgarians were massacred by the Chinese; 70,000 took refuge in Khokand, where they lived in the city of Shahri-Khana (built by Omar Khan) and on the [[Syr Darya]] below Hodjent.<ref name="SchuylerGrigorʹev1877">{{cite book|author1=Eugene Schuyler|author2=Vasilīĭ Vasilʹevich Grigorʹev|title=Turkistan: Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkistan, Khokand, Bukhara, and Kuldja|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oLha94KeTscC&pg=PA342#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1877|publisher=Scribner, Armstrong & Company|pages=342–343}}</ref>

The Muslims of eastern Turkistan follow the [[Naqshbandi]] ''[[tariqa]]'', headed ny a ''[[Pir (Sufism)|pir]]'' (generally a descendant of [[Muhammed]]). He has a body of disciples (''[[murid]]''), consisting of a lay chief and those descended from the people originally converted (or recruited) by his ancestor's preaching. He also has a band of disciples known as ''[[Imam|khalifa]]''.<ref name="ʻĀbidīn1897">{{cite book|author=Muḥammad Amīn ibn ʻUmar Ibn ʻĀbidīn|title=al-Juzʾ al-awwal[-al-thānī] min majmūʻat rasāʾil Ibn ʻĀbidīn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MAjgAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA59#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1897|publisher=Şirket-i Sahafiye-yi Osmaniye Matbaası|pages=1–}}</ref>

In 1828–29, Yusuf Khoja (Yehanghir's brother) requested permission from Madali to reconquer his fatherland. The khan gave him royal robes and twenty-five thousand men, and accompanied them to [[Uqturpan County|Ush]]. Twenty days after leaving Ush they reached a Chinese frontier stations, garrisoned by about one hundred fifty men, which they assaulted until the garrison destroyed the station.

Ishak Beg withdrew with his supporters to another Chinese fort, which contained about thirteen hundred men, and besieged it. Four months after Yusuf left the capital, word arrived that a 100,000-strong Chinese army had reached [[Peyziwat County|Faizabad]].{{sfn|Howorth|1880|pages=824 f.}} In 1846, there were new disturbances in Kashgar.<ref name="Faber1897">{{cite book|author=Ernst Faber|title=China in the Light of History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WvpWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA26#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1897|publisher=American Presbyterian mission Press|pages=26–}}</ref>

In 1825, Jehangir (grandson of the prince of Kashgar) attempted to regain Turkestan; winter ended the campaign. The next year, the khan of Kokand made an incursion as far as [[Hotan]]. Jehangir went to Hotan from Yarkand, but was repelled by about 60,000 Chinese troops. The khoja's followers fled towards [[Badakhshan]], and he and his family were killed.<ref name="Williams1871">
{{cite book
|author=Samuel Wells Williams
|title=The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Education, Social Life, Arts, Religion, Etc. of the Chinese Empire and Its Inhabitants, with a New Map of the Empire
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MpLVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA187#v=onepage&q&f=false
|year=1871
|publisher=Wiley
|pages=187–
}}</ref>

In 1842 the Khan of Khokand, Mahomed Ali, died and was succeeded by [[Muhammad Khudayar Khan]]. Although Khudayar Khan was reluctant to fight, the Khokandian chiefs went to Jehangir's seven sons and persuaded them to make another attempt to drive the Chinese out of Central Asia. The seven ''khojas'' issued a proclamation in the winter of 1845-46, rallied their adherents and made allies of the Kirghiz tribes.

The Muslim forces advanced to Kashgar and besieged it for two weeks. They gained part of the town, but the citadel held out until the Chinese expelled the invaders.<ref name="BoulgerHazeltine1898">{{cite book|author1=Demetrius Charles de Kavanagh Boulger|author2=Mayo Williamson Hazeltine|title=China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5odAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA312&dq=When+the+Mohammedan+forces+left+the+hills+they+advanced+with+extreme+rapidity+on+Kashgar,+to+which+they+laid+siege.+After+a+siege+of+a+fortnight+they+obtained+possession+of+the+town+through+the+treachery+of+some+of+the+inhabitants;+but+the+citadel+or+yangyshahr+continued+to+hold+out,+and+their+excesses+in+the+town+so+alienated+the+sympathy+of+the+Kashgarians,+that+no+popular+rising+took+place,+and+the+Chinese+were+able+to+collect+all+their+garrisons+to+expel+the+invaders.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAGoVChMIq8Chsqa6yAIVSBU-Ch1CNwcx#v=onepage&q=When%20the%20Mohammedan%20forces%20left%20the%20hills%20they%20advanced%20with%20extreme%20rapidity%20on%20Kashgar%2C%20to%20which%20they%20laid%20siege.%20After%20a%20siege%20of%20a%20fortnight%20they%20obtained%20possession%20of%20the%20town%20through%20the%20treachery%20of%20some%20of%20the%20inhabitants%3B%20but%20the%20citadel%20or%20yangyshahr%20continued%20to%20hold%20out%2C%20and%20their%20excesses%20in%20the%20town%20so%20alienated%20the%20sympathy%20of%20the%20Kashgarians%2C%20that%20no%20popular%20rising%20took%20place%2C%20and%20the%20Chinese%20were%20able%20to%20collect%20all%20their%20garrisons%20to%20expel%20the%20invaders.&f=false|year=1898|publisher=Peter Fenelon Collier|pages=312–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Nations of the World: China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ipk-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA312&dq=When+the+Mohammedan+forces+left+the+hills+they+advanced+with+extreme+rapidity+on+Kashgar,+to+which+they+laid+siege.+After+a+siege+of+a+fortnight+they+obtained+possession+of+the+town+through+the+treachery+of+some+of+the+inhabitants;+but+the+citadel+or+yangyshahr+continued+to+hold+out,+and+their+excesses+in+the+town+so+alienated+the+sympathy+of+the+Kashgarians,+that+no+popular+rising+took+place,+and+the+Chinese+were+able+to+collect+all+their+garrisons+to+expel+the+invaders.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAWoVChMIq8Chsqa6yAIVSBU-Ch1CNwcx#v=onepage&q=When%20the%20Mohammedan%20forces%20left%20the%20hills%20they%20advanced%20with%20extreme%20rapidity%20on%20Kashgar%2C%20to%20which%20they%20laid%20siege.%20After%20a%20siege%20of%20a%20fortnight%20they%20obtained%20possession%20of%20the%20town%20through%20the%20treachery%20of%20some%20of%20the%20inhabitants%3B%20but%20the%20citadel%20or%20yangyshahr%20continued%20to%20hold%20out%2C%20and%20their%20excesses%20in%20the%20town%20so%20alienated%20the%20sympathy%20of%20the%20Kashgarians%2C%20that%20no%20popular%20rising%20took%20place%2C%20and%20the%20Chinese%20were%20able%20to%20collect%20all%20their%20garrisons%20to%20expel%20the%20invaders.&f=false|year=1898|publisher=Peter Fenelon Collier|pages=312–}}</ref><ref>http://www.travelbooksonline.com/asia/0022asiapage402_250.html</ref>

A decade later another attempt was made by [[Wali Khan (khoja)|Wali Khan]], who occupied Kashgar in 1857 and massacred the Chinese. Imposing Islam on the population, he forbade plaiting the hair and murdered German traveler [[Adolf Schlagintweit]]. The Chinese army attacked, and the khoja fled back to [[Andijan]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=BC5yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA273#v=onepage&q&f=false Sykes & Sykes 1920] pp. 272–274.</ref>

==Legacy==

The [[Turkistan Islamic Party]] mentioned the war in issue 1 of its magazine, ''Islamic Turkistan'', in an article about the region's history.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=|first=|date=July 2008|title=ماذا تعرف عن تركستان الشرقية |url=https://archive.org/stream/IslamicTurkistan.mag1/islamiturkistan1#page/n17/mode/2up|magazine=تركستان الإسلامية|location=|publisher=|issue=العددالأول|page=١٧|access-date=}}</ref> and in issue 19 of its magazine, ''Islamic Turkistan'', in an article about the region's history.<ref>{{cite magazine |last= |first= |author=الشيخ علي العرجاني أبو حسن الكويتي |date=2016 |title=تركستان الشرقية تاريخ زاهر وجرح ينزف |url=https://azelin.files.wordpress.com/2016/04/turkistacc84n-al-islacc84micc84yyah-magazine-19.pdf |magazine=تركستان الإسلامية |issue= العدد 19 |page=46 |location= |publisher= |access-date= }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Dzungar conquest of Altishahr]]
*[[History of the Uyghur people]]
*[[Xinjiang under Qing rule]]
*[[East Turkestan independence movement]]

==References==
{{reflist|25em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last=Bellér-Hann |first=Ildikó |year=2008 |title=Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880-1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur |url={{Google books|cF4lMj8skvoC|plainurl=y}} |publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-16675-0 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Howorth |first=Sir Henry Hoyle |year=1880 |title=History of the Mongols (Part II: The Mongols proper and the Kalmuks) |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Company |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Howorth |first=Sir Henry Hoyle |year=2008 |title=History of the Mongols (Part II: The Mongols proper and the Kalmuks) |url={{Google books|e4PErdXlLhwC|plainurl=y}} |publisher=Cosimo |location=New York |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Millward |first=James |year=1998 |title=Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864 |url={{Google books|MC6sAAAAIAAJ|plainurl=y}} |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-2933-8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Tyler |first=Christian |year=2003 |title=Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang |url={{Google books|bEzNwgtiVQ0C|plainurl=y}} |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-0-8135-3533-3 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Tao Tao |last2=Faure |first2=David |year=1996 |title=Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China |url={{Google books|FW8SBAAAQBAJ|plainurl=y}} |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |isbn=978-962-209-402-4 |ref=harv}}

[[Category:1820s conflicts]]
[[Category:1830s conflicts]]
[[Category:1840s conflicts]]
[[Category:1850s conflicts]]
[[Category:1820s in China]]
[[Category:1830s in China]]
[[Category:1840s in China]]
[[Category:1850s in China]]
[[Category:History of Central Asia]]
[[Category:History of Xinjiang]]
[[Category:Islam in Kyrgyzstan]]
[[Category:Kazakhstani people]]
[[Category:Silk Road]]
[[Category:Tajikistani culture]]
[[Category:Uyghurs]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Qing dynasty]]

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Afaqi Khoja revolts