Caspian Sea

2017-04-17T08:19:32Z

Eric Kvaalen: Took out a sentence that didn't make much sense. The Caspian Depression is anything from 0 to 132 m below sea level, if you don't count the parts that are under the sea, but that's off the subject.

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{{EngvarO|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox lake
|name = Caspian Sea
|other_name = Xəzər dənizi / دریای کاسپین، دریای خزر / Каспий теңізі / Каспийское море / Hazar deňzi
|image = Caspian Sea from orbit.jpg
|caption = The Caspian Sea as captured by the [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer|MODIS]] on the orbiting [[Terra (satellite)|Terra satellite]], June 2003
|image_bathymetry =
|caption_bathymetry = l
|coords = {{Coord|41|40|N|50|40|E|type:waterbody_scale:5000000|display=inline,title}}
|type = [[Endorheic]], Saline, Permanent, Natural
|inflow = [[Volga River]], [[Ural River]], [[Kura (Caspian Sea)|Kura River]], [[Terek River]]
|outflow = [[Evaporation]]
|catchment = {{convert|3626000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}<ref name="vanderLeeden"/>
|basin_countries = [[Azerbaijan]], [[Iran]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Russia]], [[Turkmenistan]]
|length = {{Convert|1030|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}
|width = {{Convert|435|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}
|area = {{convert|371000|km2|sqmi|-2|abbr=on}}
|depth = {{convert|211|m|-1|abbr=on}}
|max-depth = {{Convert|1025|m|-1|abbr=on}}
|volume = {{convert|78200|km3|cumi|-2|abbr=on}}
|residence_time = 250 years
|shore = {{convert|7000|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}}
|elevation = {{convert|-28|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
|frozen =
|islands = [[:Category:Islands of the Caspian Sea|26+]]
|islands_category = Islands of the Caspian Sea
|cities = [[Baku]] (Azerbaijan), [[Bandar-e Anzali|Anzali]] (Iran), [[Aktau]] (Kazakhstan), [[Makhachkala]] (Russia), [[Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan|Türkmenbaşy]] (Turkmenistan) (''see [[#Cities near the Caspian Sea|article]]'')
|reference =<ref name="vanderLeeden">van der Leeden, Troise, and Todd, eds., ''The Water Encyclopedia''. Second Edition. Chelsea F.C., MI: Lewis Publishers, 1990, p. 196.</ref>
}}
[[File:Fernão Vaz Dourado 1570-1.jpg|thumb|265px|Unlike the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, towards the end of the 16th century the Caspian Sea was still not well explored and mapped. 1570 map by [[Fernão Vaz Dourado]].]]
The '''Caspian Sea''' is the largest enclosed inland [[body of water]] on [[Earth]] by area, variously classed as the [[List of lakes by area|world's largest lake]] or a full-fledged [[sea]].<ref name=web1>{{cite web|title=Caspian Sea – Background |url=http://www.caspianenvironment.org/newsite/Caspian-Background.htm |archive-url=https://archive.is/20130703213331/http://www.caspianenvironment.org/newsite/Caspian-Background.htm |dead-url=yes |archive-date=3 July 2013 |publisher=Caspian Environment Programme |accessdate=11 September 2012 |year=2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title =ESA: Observing the Earth – Earth from Space: The southern Caspian Sea |publisher = ESA.int|url = http://www.esa.int/esaEO/SEM5GYTLWFE_index_0.html|accessdate = 2007-05-25}}</ref> It is in an [[endorheic basin]] (a basin without outflows) located between [[Europe]] and [[Asia]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Caspian Sea|url=http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/Asiaweb/factfile/Unique-facts-Asia4.htm}}</ref> It is bounded by [[Kazakhstan]] to the northeast, [[Russia]] to the northwest, [[Azerbaijan]] to the west, [[Iran]] to the south, and [[Turkmenistan]] to the southeast.

The Caspian Sea presently lies about {{convert|28|m|0|abbr=on}} below [[sea level]] in the [[Caspian Depression]], to the east of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] and to the west of the vast steppe of [[Central Asia]]. The sea bed in the southern part reaches as low as 1023 m below sea level, which is the second lowest natural [[depression (geology)|depression]] on earth after Lake [[Baikal]] (- 1180 m). The ancient inhabitants of its coast perceived the Caspian Sea as an ocean, probably because of its saltiness and large size.

The sea has a surface area of {{Convert|371000|km2|mi2|-2|abbr=on}} (not including the detached lagoon of [[Garabogazköl]]) and a volume of {{Convert|78200|km3|mi3|-2|abbr=on}}.<ref name="LakeNet">[http://www.worldlakes.org/lakedetails.asp?lakeid=8762 Lake Profile: Caspian Sea]. ''LakeNet''.</ref> It has a [[salinity]] of approximately 1.2% (12 g/l),<ref>[http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/133415.pdf Lake Basin Management Initiative - The Caspian Sea (2004)]</ref> about a third of the salinity of most [[seawater]].

==Etymology==
The word Caspian is derived from the name of the [[Caspians|Caspi]], an ancient people who lived to the southwest of the sea in [[Transcaucasia]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110540 Caspian Sea] in Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> [[Strabo]] wrote that "to [[Caucasian Albania|the country of the Albanians]] belongs also the territory called Caspiane, which was named after the Caspian tribe, as was also the sea; but the tribe has now disappeared".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0198:book=11:chapter=4&highlight=caspiane |title=Strabo. Geography. 11.3.1 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |accessdate=2011-04-14}}</ref> Moreover, the [[Caspian Gates]], which is the name of a region in [[Iran]]'s [[Tehran province]], possibly indicates that they migrated to the south of the sea. The Iranian city of [[Qazvin]] shares the root of its name with that of the sea. In fact, the traditional Arabic name for the sea itself is Bahr al-Qazwin (Sea of Qazvin).<ref name="LPIran">''Iran'' (5th ed., 2008), by Andrew Burke and Mark Elliott, [http://www.lonelyplanet.com/shop_pickandmix/previews/iran-5-history-preview.pdf p. 28], Lonely Planet Publications, ISBN 978-1-74104-293-1</ref>

In [[classical antiquity]] among Greeks and Persians it was called the ''[[Hyrcania]]n Ocean''.<ref>[http://www.livius.org/ho-hz/hyrcania/hyrcania.html Hyrcania]. www.livius.org. Retrieved 2012-05-20.</ref> In Persian antiquity, as well as in modern [[Iran]], it is known as the {{lang|fa|دریای خزر}}, ''Daryā-e Khazar''; it is also sometimes referred to as ''[[Mazandaran]] Sea'' ({{lang-fa|دریای مازندران}}) in Iran.<ref>[http://www.briancoad.com/Introduction/caspianseabasin.htm Drainage Basins – Caspian Sea]. Briancoad.com. Retrieved 2012-05-20.</ref> Ancient Arabic sources refer to it as ''Baḥr Gīlān'' (بحر گیلان) meaning "the [[Gilan]] Sea".

[[Turkic languages]] refer to the lake as ''[[Khazar]] Sea''. In [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], the name is {{lang|tk|Hazar deňizi}}, in [[Azeri language|Azeri]], it is {{lang|az|Xəzər dənizi}}, and in [[Turkish language|modern Turkish]], it is {{lang|tr|Hazar denizi}}. In all these cases, the second word simply means "sea", and the first word refers to the historical Khazars who had a large empire based to the north of the Caspian Sea between the 7th and 10th centuries. An exception is [[Kazakh Language|Kazakh]], where it is called {{lang|kk|Каспий теңізі}}, ''Kaspiy teñizi'' (Caspian Sea).

Old Russian sources call it the ''Khvalyn'' or ''Khvalis'' Sea (Хвалынское море / Хвалисское море) after the name of [[Khwarezmia]].<ref>Max Vasmer, ''Etimologicheskii slovar' russkogo yazyka'', Vol. IV (Moscow: Progress, 1973), p. 229.</ref> In modern Russian, it is called {{lang|ru|Каспи́йское мо́ре}}, ''Kaspiyskoye more''.

==Physical characteristics==

===Formation===
The Caspian Sea, like the [[Black Sea]], [[Namak Lake]], and [[Lake Urmia]], is a remnant of the ancient [[Paratethys|Paratethys Sea]]. It became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago due to [[tectonic uplift]] and a fall in [[sea level]]. During warm and dry climatic periods, the landlocked sea almost dried up, depositing [[evaporite|evaporitic sediments]] like [[halite]] that were covered by wind-blown deposits and were sealed off as an [[evaporite]] [[Sink (geography)|sink]] when cool, wet climates refilled the basin. (Comparable evaporite beds underlie the Mediterranean.) Due to the current inflow of fresh water, the Caspian Sea is a [[freshwater]] lake in its northern portions, and is most saline on the Iranian shore, where the catchment basin contributes little flow.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.caspinfo.net/content/content.asp?menu=0130000_000000 |title=Sea Facts |work=Casp Info |accessdate=2017-02-25 }}</ref> Currently, the mean salinity of the Caspian is one third that of Earth's oceans. The [[Garabogazköl]] [[embayment]], which dried up when water flow from the main body of the Caspian was blocked in the 1980s but has since been restored, routinely exceeds oceanic salinity by a factor of 10.<ref name="web1"/>

===Geography===
[[File:caspianseamap.png|thumb|Map of the Caspian Sea, yellow shading indicates Caspian drainage basin. (Since this map was drawn, the adjacent [[Aral Sea]] has greatly decreased in size.)]]

The Caspian Sea is the largest inland body of water in the world and accounts for 40 to 44% of the total [[Wiktionary:lacustrine|lacustrine]] waters of the world.<ref name="irngaz">{{cite web|url=http://irangazette.com/12.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122212158/http://irangazette.com/12.html |archivedate=2009-01-22 |title=Caspian Sea |work=Iran Gazette |accessdate=2010-05-17}}</ref> The coastlines of the Caspian are shared by [[Azerbaijan]], [[Iran]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Russia]], and [[Turkmenistan]]. The Caspian is divided into three distinct physical regions: the Northern, Middle, and Southern Caspian.<ref name="hooshang1">{{cite book|author=Hooshang Amirahmadi|title=The Caspian Region at a Crossroad: Challenges of a New Frontier of Energy and Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zMQp4_Shq90C&pg=PA112|accessdate=20 May 2012|date=10 June 2000|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-22351-9|pages=112–}}</ref> The Northern–Middle boundary is the Mangyshlak Threshold, which runs through [[Chechen Island]] and [[Cape Tiub-Karagan]]. The Middle–Southern boundary is the Apsheron Threshold, a sill of tectonic origin between the Eurasian continent and an oceanic remnant,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Khain V. E. Gadjiev A. N. Kengerli T. N|title=Tectonic origin of the Apsheron Threshold in the Caspian Sea|journal=Doklady Earth Sciences|volume=414|year=2007|pages=552–556|doi=10.1134/S1028334X07040149}}</ref> that runs through Zhiloi Island and Cape Kuuli.<ref name="dumont1">{{cite book|author1=Henri J. Dumont|author2=Tamara A. Shiganova|author3=Ulrich Niermann|title=Aquatic Invasions in the Black, Caspian, and Mediterranean Seas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CFZqnCfulHwC|accessdate=20 May 2012|date=20 July 2004|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-1869-5}}</ref> The [[Garabogazköl]] Bay is the saline eastern inlet of the Caspian, which is part of Turkmenistan and at times has been a lake in its own right due to the isthmus that cuts it off from the Caspian.

Differences between the three regions are dramatic. The Northern Caspian only includes the Caspian shelf,<ref name="kost1">{{cite book|author=A. G. Kostianoi and A. Kosarev|title=The Caspian Sea Environment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C1ajCHzI9OEC |accessdate=20 May 2012|date=16 December 2005|publisher=Birkhäuser|isbn=978-3-540-28281-5}}</ref> and is very shallow; it accounts for less than 1% of the total water volume with an average depth of only {{convert|5|-|6|m|ft}}. The sea noticeably drops off towards the Middle Caspian, where the average depth is {{convert|190|m|ft|-1}}.<ref name="dumont1"/> The Southern Caspian is the deepest, with oceanic depths of over {{convert|1000|m|ft|-2}}, greatly exceeding the depth of other regional seas, such as the [[Persian Gulf]]. The Middle and Southern Caspian account for 33% and 66% of the total water volume, respectively.<ref name="hooshang1"/> The northern portion of the Caspian Sea typically freezes in the winter, and in the coldest winters ice forms in the south as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ann.az/en/?p=19304 |title=News Azerbaijan|work=ann.az|accessdate=9 October 2015}}</ref>

Over 130 rivers provide inflow to the Caspian, with the [[Volga River]] being the largest. A second affluent, the [[Ural River]], flows in from the north, and the [[Kura (Caspian Sea)|Kura River]] flows into the sea from the west. In the past, the [[Amu Darya]] (Oxus) of Central Asia in the east often changed course to empty into the Caspian through a now-desiccated riverbed called the [[Uzboy River]], as did the [[Syr Darya]] farther north. The Caspian also has several small islands; they are primarily located in the north and have a collective land area of roughly {{convert|2000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}. Adjacent to the North Caspian is the [[Caspian Depression]], a low-lying region {{convert|27|m|ft|0}} below [[sea level]]. The [[Central Asia]]n [[steppe]]s stretch across the northeast coast, while the [[Greater Caucasus|Caucasus mountains]] hug the western shore. The [[biomes]] to both the north and east are characterized by cold, continental deserts. Conversely, the climate to the southwest and south are generally warm with uneven elevation due to a mix of highlands and [[mountain range]]s; the drastic changes in climate alongside the Caspian have led to a great deal of [[biodiversity]] in the region.<ref name="web1"/>{{clear left}}

The Caspian Sea has numerous islands throughout, all of them near the coasts; none in the deeper parts of the sea. [[Ogurja Ada]] is the largest island. The island is {{convert|37|km|0|abbr=on}} long, with [[gazelle]]s roaming freely on it. In the North Caspian, the majority of the islands are small and uninhabited, like the [[Tyuleniy Archipelago (Kazakhstan)|Tyuleniy Archipelago]], an [[Important Bird Area]] (IBA), although some of them have human settlements.

===Hydrology===
[[File:Caspian Sea Kazakhstan Mangistau.jpg|thumb|Caspian Sea near [[Aktau]], [[Mangystau Region]], [[Kazakhstan]].]]

The Caspian has characteristics common to both seas and [[lake]]s. It is often listed as the world's largest lake, although it is not a [[freshwater]] lake. It contains about 3.5 times more water, by volume, than all five of North America's [[Great Lakes]] combined. The Caspian was once part of the [[Tethys Ocean]], but became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago due to [[plate tectonics]].<ref name="irngaz"/> The [[Volga River]] (about 80% of the inflow) and the [[Ural River]] discharge into the Caspian Sea, but it has no natural outflow other than by [[evaporation]]. Thus the Caspian [[ecosystem]] is a [[closed basin]], with its own sea level history that is independent of the [[Eustasis|eustatic]] level of the world's oceans.

The level of the Caspian has fallen and risen, often rapidly, many times over the centuries. Some Russian historians{{Who|date=May 2011}} claim that a [[medieval]] rising of the Caspian, perhaps caused by the [[Amu Darya]] changing its inflow to the Caspian from the 13th century to the 16th century, caused the coastal towns of [[Khazars|Khazaria]], such as [[Atil, Khazaria|Atil]], to flood. In 2004, the water level was {{convert|28|m|abbr=off}} below [[sea level]].

Over the centuries, Caspian Sea levels have changed in synchrony with the estimated discharge of the Volga, which in turn depends on rainfall levels in its vast catchment basin. Precipitation is related to variations in the amount of North Atlantic depressions that reach the interior, and they in turn are affected by cycles of the [[North Atlantic Oscillation]]. Thus levels in the Caspian Sea relate to atmospheric conditions in the North [[Atlantic]] thousands of miles to the northwest. {{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

The last short-term sea-level cycle started with a sea-level fall of {{convert|3|m|0|abbr=on}} from 1929 to 1977, followed by a rise of {{convert|3|m|0|abbr=on}} from 1977 until 1995. Since then smaller oscillations have taken place.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caspage.citg.tudelft.nl/project.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724171008/http://www.caspage.citg.tudelft.nl/project.html |archivedate=2011-07-24 |title=Welcome to the Caspian Sea Level Project Site |publisher=Caspage.citg.tudelft.nl |accessdate=2010-05-17}}</ref>

===Environmental degradation===
The [[Volga River]], the largest in Europe, drains 20% of the European land area and is the source of 80% of the Caspian's inflow. Its lower reaches are heavily developed with numerous unregulated releases of chemical and biological pollutants. Although existing data are sparse and of questionable quality, there is ample evidence to suggest that the Volga is one of the principal sources of transboundary contaminants into the Caspian.

The magnitude of [[fossil fuel]] extraction and transport activity in the Caspian also poses a risk to the environment. The island of [[Vulf]] off [[Baku]], for example, has suffered ecological damage as a result of the petrochemical industry; this has significantly decreased the number of species of marine birds in the area. Existing and planned oil and gas pipelines under the sea further increase the potential threat to the environment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caspianenvironment.org/newsite/Caspian-EnvironmentalIssues.htm |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100413172855/http://www.caspianenvironment.org/newsite/Caspian-EnvironmentalIssues.htm |dead-url=yes |archive-date=13 April 2010 |title=Caspian Environment Programme |publisher=caspianenvironment.org |accessdate=30 October 2012 }}</ref>

The Vladimir Filanovsky field in the Russian section of the body of water was discovered for its wealth of oil in 2005. It is reportedly the largest discovery of oil that they have had in 25 years. It was announced in October 2016 that LUKOIL would start production in this region.<ref>{{cite web|title=LUKOIL starts up V.Filanovsky in the Caspian Sea|url=http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/2016/10/lukoil-starts-up-v-filanovsky-in-the-caspian-sea.html}}</ref>

==Nature==
[[File:Ghaleye Rud Khan (40) 4.jpg|thumb|Iran's northern [[Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests]] are maintained by moisture captured from the Caspian Sea by the [[Alborz|Alborz Mountain Range]] of [[Gilan]], [[Iran]].]]

===Aquatic===
====Flora====
The rising level of the Caspian Sea between 1994–96 reduced the number of habitats for rare species of aquatic vegetation. This has been attributed to a general lack of seeding material in newly formed coastal lagoons and water bodies.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

====Fauna====
[[File:Benthophilus casachicus, Caspian Sea.jpg|thumb|Most [[Tadpole goby|tadpole gobies]] (''Benthophilus'') are only found in the Caspian Sea basin.<ref name=Naseka2009/>]]

[[Reptile]]s native to the sea include [[spur-thighed tortoise]] (''Testudo graeca buxtoni'') and [[Russian tortoise|Horsfield's tortoise]]. The [[Caspian turtle]] (''Mauremys caspica''), although found in neighboring areas, is a wholly [[freshwater]] [[species]]. The [[zebra mussel]] is native to the Caspian and Black Sea basins, but has become an [[invasive species]] elsewhere, when introduced. The area has given its name to several species, including the [[Caspian gull]] and the [[Caspian tern]]. The [[Caspian seal]] (''Pusa caspica'') is the only aquatic mammal and is [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the Caspian Sea, being one of very few [[Pinniped|seal species]] that live in inland waters, but is different from [[Freshwater seal|those inhabiting freshwaters]] due to the hydrological environment of the sea.

Archeological studies of [[Gobustan National Park|Gobustan]] [[petroglyph]]s indicate that there once had been [[dolphin]]s and [[porpoise]]s,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Caspian Sea|url=http://www.allthesea.com/The-Caspian-Sea.html|work=All The Sea|accessdate=2015-01-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Masuleh|url=http://www.persevoyages.com/iran.masuleh.htm|accessdate=2015-01-16}}</ref> or a certain species of [[beaked whale]]s<ref name=Gallagher>{{cite web|author=Gallagher R.|year=2012|title=Azerbaijan: Land of Fire and Flood – Ancient Mariners and a Deluged Landscape - Rock Art Evidence of a Marine Inflow.|publisher=The Official [[Graham Hancock]] Homepage|accessdate=2015-11-18}}</ref> and a whaling scene indicates of large [[baleen whale]]s<ref>GallagherR., [http://documentslide.com/documents/the-ice-age-rise-and-fall-of-the-ponto-caspian-ancient-mariners-and-the-asiatic-mediterranean-55b94263756cb.html THE ICE AGE RISE AND FALL OF THE PONTO CASPIAN: ANCIENT MARINERS AND THE ASIATIC MEDITERRANEAN.]</ref> likely being present in Caspian Sea at least until when Caspian Sea was a part of ocean system or until [[Quaternary]] period.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=The [[Smithsonian Institution]]|title=Gobustan Petroglyphs – Methods & Chronology|url=http://gobustan.si.edu/dating_methods_chronology|accessdate=2015-01-19}}</ref> Although the rock art on [[Kichikdash Mountain]] assumed to be of a dolphin<ref name=GH>{{cite web|publisher=The [[Smithsonian Institution]]|title=Gobustan Petroglyphs – Subject Matter|url=http://gobustan.si.edu/subject_matter|accessdate=2015-01-19}}</ref> or of a beaked whale,<ref name=Gallagher /> might instead represent the famous [[Beluga (sturgeon)|beluga sturgeon]] due to its size (430 cm in length), but fossil records suggest certain ancestors of modern dolphins and whales, such as ''[[Kentriodontidae|Macrokentriodon]] morani'' ([[bottlenose dolphin]]s) and ''[[Balaenoptera sibbaldina]]'' ([[blue whale]]s) were presumably larger than their present descendants. From the same artworks, [[auk]]s, like [[Thick-billed murre|Brunnich's Guillemot]] could also have been in the sea as well, and the existences of current endemic, oceanic species and these petroglyphs suggest marine inflow between the current Caspian Sea and the Arctic Ocean or [[North Sea]], or the [[Black Sea]].<ref name=GH />

The sea's [[Drainage basin|basin]] (including associated waters such as rivers) has 160 native species and [[subspecies]] of fish in more than 60 [[genera]].<ref name=Naseka2009>Naseka, A.M.; and N.G. Bogutskaya (2009). Fishes of the Caspian Sea: zoogeography and updated check-list. Zoosystematica Rossica 18(2): 295–317.</ref> About 62% of the species and subspecies are [[Endemism|endemic]], as are 4–6 genera (depending on [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] treatment). The lake proper has 115 natives, including 73 endemics (63.5%).<ref name=Naseka2009/> Among the more than 50 genera in the lake proper, 3–4 are endemic: ''[[Anatirostrum]]'', ''[[Caspiomyzon]]'', ''[[Ponticola bathybius|Chasar]]'' (often included in ''[[Ponticola]]'') and ''[[Hyrcanogobius]]''.<ref name=Naseka2009/> By far the most numerous families in the lake proper are [[gobies]] (35 species and subspecies), [[cyprinid]]s (32) and [[clupeid]]s (22). Two particularly rich genera are ''[[Alosa]]'' with 18 endemic species/subspecies and ''[[Benthophilus]]'' with 16 endemic species.<ref name=Naseka2009/> Other examples of endemics are four species of ''[[Clupeonella]]'', ''[[Gobio volgensis]]'', two ''[[Rutilus]]'', three ''[[Sabanejewia]]'', ''[[Stenodus leucichthys]]'', two ''[[Salmo]]'', two ''[[Mesogobius]]'' and three ''[[Neogobius]]''.<ref name=Naseka2009/> Most non-endemic natives are either shared with the Black Sea basin or widespread [[Palearctic]] species such as [[crucian carp]], [[Prussian carp]], [[common carp]], [[common bream]], [[common bleak]], [[Asp (fish)|asp]], [[white bream]], [[sunbleak]], [[common dace]], [[common roach]], [[common rudd]], [[European chub]], [[sichel]], [[tench]], [[European weatherfish]], [[wels catfish]], [[northern pike]], [[burbot]], [[European perch]] and [[zander]].<ref name=Naseka2009/> Almost 30 non-indigenous, [[Introduced species|introduced]] fish species have been reported from the Caspian Sea, but only a few have become established.<ref name=Naseka2009/>

Six [[sturgeon]] species, the [[Russian sturgeon|Russian]], [[Bastard sturgeon|bastard]], [[Persian sturgeon|Persian]], [[sterlet]], [[Starry sturgeon|starry]] and [[Beluga (sturgeon)|beluga]], are native to the Caspian Sea.<ref name=Naseka2009/> The last of these is arguably the [[List of largest fish|largest freshwater fish in the world]]. The sturgeon yield [[roe]] (eggs) that are processed into [[caviar]]. Overfishing has depleted a number of the historic fisheries.<ref>C. Michael Hogan ''Overfishing''. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney Draggan and Cutler Cleveland. National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington DC</ref> In recent years, overfishing has threatened the sturgeon population to the point that [[Environmentalism|environmentalists]] advocate banning sturgeon fishing completely until the population recovers. The high price of sturgeon caviar, however, allows fishermen to afford bribes to ensure the authorities look the other way, making regulations in many locations ineffective.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2757/html/focus.htm |title=Fishing Prospects |accessdate=2012-05-20 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905160627/http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2757/html/focus.htm |archivedate=2008-09-05 |df= }}. iran-daily.com (2007-01-14)</ref> Caviar harvesting further endangers the fish stocks, since it targets reproductive females.

===Terrestrial===
====Flora====
Many rare and endemic plant species of Russia are associated with the [[Intertidal zone|tidal areas]] of the [[Volga delta]] and [[riparian forest]]s of the [[Samur River]] delta. The shoreline is also a unique refuge for plants adapted to the loose sands of the [[Central Asian northern desert|Central Asian Desert]]s. The principal limiting factors to successful establishment of plant species are hydrological imbalances within the surrounding deltas, [[water pollution]], and various land reclamation activities. The water level change within the Caspian Sea is an indirect reason for which plants may not get established.

These affect aquatic plants of the Volga Delta, such as ''[[Aldrovanda vesiculosa]]'' and the native ''[[Nelumbo|Nelumbo caspica]]''. About 11 plant species are found in the Samur River Delta, including the unique [[liana]] forests that date back to the [[Tertiary period]].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

====Fauna====
[[File:Extantigerturanianwksciam97.jpg|thumb|Illustration of two [[Caspian tiger]]s, extinct in the region since the 1970s.]]

* The [[Asiatic cheetah]] used to occur in the Trans-Caucasus and [[Central Asia]], but is today restricted to Iran.<ref name=Geptner1972>{{cite book |author=Heptner, V. G., Sludskij, A. A. |orig-year=1972 |year=1992 |title=Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola |trans-title=Mammals of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats) |publisher=Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation |location=Washington DC |chapter= |url=https://archive.org/stream/mammalsofsov221992gept#page/83/mode/2up |pages=1–732}}</ref><ref name=Humphreys1999>Humphreys, P., Kahrom, E. (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=esV0hccod0kC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA77#v=onepage&q&f=false Lion and Gazelle: The Mammals and Birds of Iran]. Images Publishing, Avon.</ref>
* The [[Asiatic lion]] used to occur in the Trans-Caucasus, Iran, and possibly the southern part of [[Turkestan]].<ref name=Geptner1972/><ref name=Humphreys1999/>
* The [[Caspian tiger]] used to occur in northern Iran, the Caucasus and [[Central Asia]].<ref name=Geptner1972/><ref name=Humphreys1999/>
* The [[Persian leopard]] is found in Iran, the Caucasus and Central Asia.<ref name=Geptner1972/><ref name=Humphreys1999/>

==History==
[[File:Caspian sea Ibn Hawqal.JPG|thumb|Caspian Sea (Bahr ul-Khazar). 10th century map by Ibn Hawqal]]
[[File:Caspian sea in Persian (IRAN) Empire 1747.JPG|thumb|left|Caspian Sea map from 1747 with the [[Dead Kultuk]] as 'Blue Sea']]
[[File:surikov1906.jpg|thumb|The 17th-century [[Cossacks|Cossack]] rebel and pirate [[Stenka Razin]], on a raid in the Caspian ([[Vasily Surikov]], 1906)]]

The earliest hominid remains found around the Caspian Sea are from [[Dmanisi]] dating back to around 1.8 Ma and yielded a number of skeletal remains of [[Homo erectus]] or [[Homo ergaster]]. More later evidence for human occupation of the region come from a number of caves in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and Azerbaijan such as Kudaro and [[Azykh Cave]]s. There is evidence for [[Lower Palaeolithic]] human occupation south of the Caspian from western Alburz. These are Ganj Par and [[Darband Cave]] sites.

[[Neanderthal]] remains also have been discovered at a cave site in Georgia. Discoveries in the Huto cave and the adjacent Kamarband cave, near the town of [[Behshahr]], [[Mazandaran]] south of the Caspian in Iran, suggest human habitation of the area as early as 11,000 years ago.<ref>[http://www.iranair.com/site/779/default.aspx "Major Monuments"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514134103/http://www.iranair.com/site/779/default.aspx |date=May 14, 2011 }}. Iranair.com. Retrieved 2012-05-20.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2717/html/focus.htm |title=Safeguarding Caspian Interests |accessdate=2016-02-07 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603170833/http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2717/html/focus.htm |archivedate=2009-06-03 |df= }}. iran-daily.com (2006-11-26)</ref>

The Caspian area is rich in energy resources. Wells were being dug in the region as early as the 10th century.<ref name=SOCAR1>[http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/42_folder/42_articles/42_socarkhoshbakht.html The Development of the Oil and Gas Industry in Azerbaijan] SOCAR</ref> By the 16th century, Europeans were aware of the rich oil and gas deposits around the area. English traders Thomas Bannister and Jeffrey Duckett described the area around Baku as "a strange thing to behold, for there issueth out of the ground a marvelous quantity of oil, which serveth all the country to burn in their houses. This oil is black and is called [[naphtha#Etymology|nefte]]. There is also by the town of Baku, another kind of oil which is white and very precious (i.e., [[petroleum]])."<ref name=SOCAR2>[http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/63_folder/63_articles/63_adams.html Back to the Future: Britain, Baku Oil and the Cycle of History] SOCAR</ref>

In the 18th century, during the rule of [[Peter I the Great]], [[Fedor Ivanovich Soimonov|Fedor I. Soimonov]], hydrographer and pioneering explorer of the Caspian Sea charted the until then little known body of water. Soimonov drew a set of four maps and wrote the 'Pilot of the Caspian Sea', the first report and modern maps of the Caspian, that were published in 1720 by the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/767183/Fedor-I-Soimonov |title=Fedor I. Soimonov|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=9 October 2015}}</ref>

Today, oil and gas platforms are abounding along the edges of the sea.<ref>{{cite web|title=Caspian Sea|url=http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/caspiansea.htm}}</ref>

===Cities===
[[File:View of night Baku, 2010.jpg|thumb|[[Baku]], the capital of [[Azerbaijan]] is the largest city by the Caspian Sea.]]

====Ancient====
* [[Hyrcania]], ancient state in the north of Iran
* [[Bandar Anzali|Anzali]], [[Gilan Province]] of Iran
* [[Astara, Iran|Astara]], [[Gilan Province]] of Iran
* [[Astarabad]], [[Mazandaran Province]] of Iran
* [[Sar Kalateh-ye Kharab Shahr|Tamisheh]], [[Mazandaran Province]] of Iran
* [[Atil, Khazaria]]
* [[Khazaran]]
* [[Baku]], Azerbaijan
* [[Derbent]], [[Dagestan]], Russia
* [[Xacitarxan]], modern-day [[Astrakhan]]

====Modern====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Iran]]:
** [[Aliabad-e Katul|Ali Abad]]
** [[Astaneh-e Ashrafiyyeh|Astaneh-ye Ashrafiyeh]]
** [[Astara, Iran|Astara]]
** [[Babolsar]]
** [[Bandar Anzali]]
** [[Bandar-e-gaz County|Bandar-e-gaz]]
** [[Bandar Torkaman]]
** [[Behshahr]]
** [[Chaloos]]
** [[Fenderesk]]
** [[Gomishan]]
** [[Gonbad-e Qabus (city)|Gonbad-e Kavus]]
** [[Gorgan]]
** [[Jooybar]]
** [[Kordkuy]]
** [[Lahijan]]
** [[Langrud]]
** [[Mahmudabad, Mazandaran|MahmudAbad]]
** [[Neka]]
** [[Nowshahr]]
** [[Noor, Iran|Nur]]
** [[Ramsar, Mazandaran|Ramsar]]
** [[Rasht]]
** [[Rudbar]]
** [[Roudsar|Rudsar]]
** [[Sari, Iran|Sari]]
** [[Tonekabon]]
* [[Azerbaijan]]:
** [[Astara, Azerbaijan|Astara]]
** [[Baku]]
** [[Gobustan Rayon|Gobustan]]
** [[Khudat]]
** [[Khachmaz (city)|Khachmaz]]
** [[Lankaran]]
** [[Masalli]]
** [[Nabran]]
** [[Neftçala|Neftchala]]
** [[Shabran]]
** [[Siazan Rayon|Siyazan]]
** [[Oil Rocks]]
** [[Sumqayit]]
* [[Kazakhstan]]:
** [[Atyrau]]
** [[Aktau]]
* [[Russia]]:
** [[Astrakhan]]
** [[Dagestanskiye Ogni]]
** [[Derbent]]
** [[Izberbash]]
** [[Kaspiysk]]
** [[Makhachkala]]
* [[Turkmenistan]]:
** [[Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan|Türkmenbaşy]] (formerly Krasnovodsk)
** [[Hazar, Turkmenistan|Hazar]] (formerly Çeleken)
** [[Esenguly, Turkmenistan|Esenguly]]
** [[Garabogaz, Turkmenistan|Garabogaz]] (formerly Bekdaş)
{{div col end}}

==Oil extraction==
[[File:Oil pipelines in the Caspian region.gif|thumb|Oil pipelines in the Caspian region. September 2002.]]
[[File:Caspian region oil and natural gas infrastructure.png|thumb|Caspian region oil and natural gas infrastructure. August 2013.]]

The world's first offshore wells and machine-drilled wells were made in Bibi-Heybat Bay, near [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]. In 1873, exploration and development of oil began in some of the largest fields known to exist in the world at that time on the [[Absheron peninsula]] near the villages of Balakhanli, Sabunchi, Ramana and Bibi Heybat. Total recoverable reserves were more than 500 million tons. By 1900, Baku had more than 3,000 oil wells, 2,000 of which were producing at industrial levels. By the end of the 19th century, Baku became known as the "black gold capital", and many skilled workers and specialists flocked to the city.

By the beginning of the 20th century, [[Baku]] was the centre of international oil industry. In 1920, when the [[Bolsheviks]] captured [[Azerbaijan]], all private property – including oil wells and factories – was confiscated. Afterwards, the republic's entire oil industry came under the control of the [[Soviet Union]]. By 1941, Azerbaijan was producing a record 23.5 million tons of oil, and the Baku region supplied nearly 72% of all oil extracted in the entire USSR.<ref name=SOCAR1/>

In 1994, the "[[Oil industry in Azerbaijan#Contract of The Century and new Oil Boom|Contract of the Century]]" was signed, signalling the start of major international development of the Baku oil fields. The [[Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline]], a major pipeline allowing Azerbaijan oil to flow straight to the [[Turkey|Turkish]] [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] port of [[Ceyhan]], opened in 2006.

===Political issues===
Many of the islands along the Azerbaijani coast continue to hold significant geopolitical and economic importance because of the potential oil reserves found nearby. [[Bulla Island]], [[Pirallahı Island]], and [[Nargin (island)|Nargin]], which was used as a former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] base and is the largest island in the [[Baku]] bay, all hold oil reserves.

The collapse of the USSR and subsequent opening of the region has led to an intense investment and development scramble by international oil companies. In 1998, [[Dick Cheney]] commented that "I can't think of a time when we've had a region emerge as suddenly to become as strategically significant as the Caspian."<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/1025/p8s1-comv.html The Great Gas Game], ''Christian Science Monitor'', (2001-10-25)</ref>

A key problem to further development in the region is the status of the Caspian Sea and the establishment of the water boundaries among the five [[littoral]] states. The current disputes along Azerbaijan's maritime borders with Turkmenistan and Iran could potentially affect future development plans.

Much controversy currently exists over the proposed Trans-Caspian [[Trans-Caspian Oil Transport System|oil]] and [[Trans-Caspian Gas Pipeline|gas]] pipelines. These projects would allow Western markets easier access to Kazakh oil and, potentially, Uzbek and Turkmen gas as well. Russia officially opposes the project on environmental grounds.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} However, analysts note that the pipelines would bypass Russia completely, thereby denying the country valuable transit fees, as well as destroying its current [[monopoly]] on westward-bound [[hydrocarbon]] exports from the region.<ref>Sergei Blagov, [http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav032806.shtml Russia Tries to Scuttle Proposed Trans-Caspian Pipeline], Eurasianet, (2006-03-27)</ref> Recently, both Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan have expressed their support for the Trans-Caspian Pipeline.<ref>[http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/business/articles/eav121107.shtml Russia Seeking To Keep Kazakhstan Happy], Eurasianet, (2007-12-10)</ref>

U.S. [[diplomatic cable]]s disclosed by [[WikiLeaks]] revealed that [[BP]] covered up a gas leak and [[Blowout (well drilling)|blowout]] incident in September 2008 at an operating gas field in the Azeri-Chirag-Guneshi area of the Azerbaijan Caspian Sea.<ref>{{cite news|author=Tim Webb|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/15/wikileaks-bp-azerbaijan-gulf-spill |title=WikiLeaks cables: BP suffered blowout on Azerbaijan gas platform|work=The Guardian|date=2010-12-15|accessdate=2013-03-26|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Walt|first=Vivienne|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2037830,00.html |title=WikiLeaks Reveals BP's 'Other' Offshore Drilling Disaster|work=Time|date=2010-12-18|accessdate=2013-03-26}}</ref>

==Territorial status==
[[File:Iran southern caspian energy prospects 2004.jpg|thumb|Southern Caspian Energy Prospects (portion of Iran). Country Profile 2004.]]
[[File:Baku Bulvar.jpg|right|thumb|Caspian Sea, Azerbaijan]]

{{as of|2000}}, negotiations related to the [[Demarcation line|demarcation]] of the Caspian Sea had been going on for nearly a decade among the states bordering the Caspian – Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Iran. The status of the Caspian Sea<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/83_folder/83_articles/83_yusifzade.html |title=8.3 The Status of the Caspian Sea – Dividing Natural Resources Between Five Countries|author=Khoshbakht B. Yusifzade|publisher=Azer.com|accessdate=2010-05-17}}</ref> is the key problem. Access to mineral resources ([[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas]]), access for [[fishing]], and access to [[international waters]] (through Russia's [[Volga]] river and the canals connecting it to the [[Black Sea]] and [[Baltic Sea]]) all depend upon the outcomes of negotiations. Access to the Volga River is particularly important for the [[landlocked]] states of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. This concerns Russia, because the potential traffic would use its inland [[waterway]]s. If a body of water is labelled as a [[sea]], then there would be some precedents and international treaties obliging the granting of access permits to foreign vessels. If a body of water is labelled merely as a [[lake]], then there are no such obligations. [[Environment (biophysical)|Environmental]] issues are also somewhat connected to the status and [[border]]s issue.

All five Caspian littoral states maintain naval forces on the sea.<ref>{{citation|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/06/22/the_great_caspian_arms_race |title=The great Caspian arms race|periodical=Foreign Policy|date=June 2012}}</ref>

According to a [[treaty]] signed between Iran and the Soviet Union, the Caspian Sea is technically a lake and was divided into two sectors (Iranian and Soviet), but the resources (then mainly [[fish]]) were commonly shared. The line between the two sectors was considered an international border in a common lake, like [[Lake Albert (Africa)|Lake Albert]]. The Soviet sector was sub-divided into the four littoral republics' administrative sectors.

Russia, Kazakhstan, and Azerbaijan have bilateral agreements with each other based on [[median]] lines. Because of their use by the three nations, median lines seem to be the most likely method of delineating territory in future agreements. However, Iran insists on a single, multilateral agreement between the five nations (as this is the only way for it to achieve a one-fifth share of the sea). Azerbaijan is at odds with Iran over some [[oil field]]s that both states claim. Occasionally, Iranian patrol boats have fired at vessels sent by Azerbaijan for exploration into the disputed region. There are similar tensions between Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan (the latter claims that the former has pumped more oil than agreed from a field, recognized by both parties as shared).

The Caspian littoral states' meeting in 2007 signed an agreement that bars any ship not flying the national flag of a littoral state from entering the sea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brtsis.com/rrubbbb.htm |title=Russia Gets Way in Caspian Meet |accessdate=2007-10-28 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120180954/http://www.brtsis.com/rrubbbb.htm |archivedate=2008-01-20 |df= }}{{failed verification|date=September 2015}}</ref>

Negotiations among the five littoral states have been ongoing, amidst ebbs and flows, for the past 20 years, with some degree of progress being made at the fourth Caspian Summit held in Astrakhan in 2014.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03071847.2015.1031525 |author=Nicola Contessi|title=Traditional Security in Eurasia: The Caspian caught between Militarisation and Diplomacy|periodical=The RUSI Journal|date=April 2015}}</ref>

===Cross-border inflow===
[[UNECE]] recognizes several rivers that cross international borders which flow into the Caspian Sea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unece.org/env/water/blanks/assessment/caspian.pdf |title=Drainage basing of the Caspian Sea|publisher=unece.org}}</ref>
These are:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! River
! Countries
|-
|[[Atrek River]]
|Iran, Turkmenistan
|-
|[[Kura (Caspian Sea)|Kura River]]
|Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, Turkey
|-
|[[Ural River]]
|Kazakhstan, Russia
|-
|[[Samur River]]
|Azerbaijan, Russia
|-
|[[Sulak River]]
|Georgia, Russia
|-
|[[Terek River]]
|Georgia, Russia
|}

==Transport==
Although the Caspian Sea is [[endorheic]], its main tributary, the [[Volga]], is connected by important shipping canals [[Volga–Don Canal|with the Don River]] (and thus the Black Sea) and [[Volga–Baltic Waterway|with the Baltic Sea]], with branch canals [[Northern Dvina Canal|to Northern Dvina]] and [[White Sea-Baltic Canal|to the White Sea]].

Another Caspian tributary, the [[Kuma River (Russia)|Kuma River]], is connected by [[Kuma-Manych Canal|an irrigation canal]] with the Don basin as well.

Several scheduled [[ferry]] services (including [[Train ferry|train ferries]]) operate on the Caspian Sea, including:
* a line between [[Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan|Türkmenbaşy]], [[Turkmenistan]] (formerly Krasnovodsk) and [[Baku]].
* a line between Baku and [[Aktau]].
* several lines between cities in [[Iran]] and [[Russia]].

The ferries are mostly used for cargo; only the Baku – Aktau and Baku – Türkmenbaşy routes accept passengers.

===Canals ===
As an [[endorheic basin]], the Caspian Sea basin has no natural connection with the ocean. Since the medieval period, traders reached the Caspian via a number of [[portage]]s that connected the Volga and its tributaries with the [[Don River (Russia)|Don]] (which flows into the [[Sea of Azov]]) and various rivers that flow into the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]]. [[Volga–Baltic Waterway#History|Primitive canals]] connecting the Volga Basin with the Baltic have been constructed as early as the early 18th century; since then, a number of canal projects have been completed. The two modern canal systems connecting the Volga basin with the ocean are the [[Volga–Baltic Waterway]] and the [[Volga–Don Canal]].

The proposed [[Pechora-Kama Canal]] was a project that was widely discussed between the 1930s and 1980s. Shipping was a secondary consideration; its main goal was to [[Northern river reversal|redirect some of the water]] of the [[Pechora River]] (which flows into the [[Arctic Ocean]]) via the [[Kama River|Kama]] into the Volga. The goals were both irrigation and stabilizing the water level in the Caspian, which was thought to be falling dangerously fast at the time. In 1971 some [[Peaceful nuclear explosions|construction experiments]] were conducted using [[Nuclear explosive|nuclear explosions]].

In June 2007, in order to boost his oil-rich country's access to markets, [[Kazakhstan]]'s President [[Nursultan Nazarbaev]] proposed a {{convert|700|km|0|abbr=off|adj=on}} link between the Caspian and [[Black sea]]s. It is hoped that the "[[Eurasia Canal]]" ([[Manych Ship Canal]]) would transform landlocked Kazakhstan and other [[Central Asian]] countries into maritime states, enabling them to significantly increase trade volume. Although the canal would traverse [[Russia]]n territory, it would benefit Kazakhstan through its Caspian Sea ports. The most likely route for the canal, the officials at the Committee on Water Resources at Kazakhstan's Agriculture Ministry say, would follow the [[Kuma-Manych Depression]], where currently a chain of rivers and lakes is already connected by an irrigation canal ([[Kuma-Manych Canal]]). Upgrading the Volga–Don Canal would be another option.<ref>[http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/jul2007/gb2007079_528939.htm Caspian Canal Could Boost Kazakh Trade] [[Business Week]] (2007-07-09)</ref>

==See also==
* [[Baku Oil Fields]]
* [[Caspian people]]
* [[Ekranoplan]], a [[Ground effect vehicle|ground effect plane]] which was developed on the Caspian Sea.
* [[Epoch of Extremal Inundations]]
* [[Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea]]
* [[Shah Deniz gas field]]
* [[South Caucasus pipeline]]
* [[Southern Gas Corridor]]
* [[Tengiz Field]]
* [[Trans-Caspian Gas Pipeline]]
* [[Trans-Caspian Oil Pipeline]]
* [[Wildlife of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Wildlife of Iran]]
* [[Wildlife of Kazakhstan]]
* [[Wildlife of Russia]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Caspian Sea}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.iranchamber.com/geography/articles/names_of_caspian_sea.php Names of the Caspian Sea]
* [http://www.parstimes.com/caspian/ Caspian Sea Region]
* [http://globalguerrillas.typepad.com/globalguerrillas/2004/07/long_term_gg_ta.html Target: Caspian Sea Oil] John Robb, 2004
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110724171008/http://www.caspage.citg.tudelft.nl/project.html Dating Caspian sea level changes]
* [http://www.payvand.com/news/10/nov/1032.html Caspian Sea Is Dying]
* [http://www.iikss.com/en/ IIKSS-international institute of khazar(caspian) sea studies]

{{Regions of the world}}
{{Caspian Sea Islands}}
{{List of seas}}
{{Lakes of Kazakhstan}}
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{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Caspian Sea| ]]
[[Category:Endorheic lakes of Asia]]
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[[Category:Saline lakes]]
[[Category:Landforms of Central Asia]]
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Caspian Sea