Kazakhstan Encyclopedia - User contributions [en]

Dalmatian pelican

2017-04-16T13:20:36Z

Couiros22:

{{Use British English|date=May 2014}}
{{Taxobox
| name = Dalmatian pelican
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22697599 |title=''Pelecanus crispus'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| image = ComputerHotline - Pelecanus crispus (by) (1).jpg
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Pelican|Pelecaniformes]]
| familia = [[Pelican|Pelecanidae]]
| genus = ''[[Pelican|Pelecanus]]''
| species = '''''P. crispus'''''
| binomial = ''Pelecanus crispus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carl Friedrich Bruch|Bruch]], 1832
}}
The '''Dalmatian pelican''' (''Pelecanus crispus'') is a massive member of the [[pelican]] family. It breeds from southeastern [[Europe]] to [[India]] and [[China]] in swamps and shallow lakes. The nest is a crude heap of vegetation.

No [[subspecies]] are known to exist over its wide range, but based on size differences, a [[Pleistocene]] [[paleosubspecies]], ''Pelecanus crispus palaeocrispus,'' has been described from [[fossil]]s recovered at [[Binagady]], [[Azerbaijan]].

==Description==
[[File:Pelecanus crispus-20030720.jpg|thumb|left]]
This huge bird is by a slight margin the largest of the pelican species and one of the largest living bird species. It measures {{convert|160|to|183|cm|ftin|0|abbr=on}} in length, {{convert|7.25|–|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in weight and {{convert|245|to|351|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} in wingspan.<ref>Birdlife International</ref><ref name="Burnie">Burnie D and Wilson DE (Eds.), ''Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife''. DK Adult (2005), ISBN 978-0-7894-7764-4</ref><ref name= CRC>''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), ISBN 978-0-8493-4258-5.</ref><ref>''Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds'' by Christopher Perrins. Firefly Books (2003), ISBN 978-1-55297-777-4</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ali, Salim|year=1993|title=The Book of Indian Birds|publisher=Bombay Natural History Society|location=Bombay|isbn=978-0-19-562167-9}}</ref><ref name="Harrison">Harrison, Peter, ''Seabirds: An Identification Guide''. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (1991), ISBN 978-0-395-60291-1</ref><ref>''Birds of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East: A Photographic Guide'' by Frédéric Jiguet & Aurélien Audevard. Princeton University Press (2017), 978-0691172439.</ref><ref name= Gilbert>Gilbert, M, P; Jarvis, E, D; Li, B; Li, C; The Avian Genome Consortium, ; Wang, J; Zhang, G (2014): ''Genomic data of the Dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus crispus)''. GigaScience Database.</ref> Its median weight is around {{convert|11.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, which makes it perhaps the world's heaviest flying bird species, although the largest individuals among male [[bustard]]s and [[swan]]s may be heavier than the largest individual Dalmatian pelican.<ref name= CRC/> More recently, six male Dalmatians were found to average {{convert|10.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and four females {{convert|8.7|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, around the same average weight as the [[great white pelican]] (''Pelecanus onocrotalus'') and slightly lighter than mean body masses from other huge birds such as the [[trumpeter swan]] (''Cygnus buccinator'') or [[Andean condor]] (''Vultur gryphus'').<ref name = CRC2>''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (2008), ISBN 978-1-4200-6444-5.</ref> A mean estimated body mass for the Dalmatian pelican of {{convert|10.9|kg|lb|abbr=on}} was also published, around the same mass as the afforementioned largest swan and condor.<ref>Greenwood, J. J., Gregory, R. D., Harris, S., Morris, P. A., & Yalden, D. W. (1996). ''Relations between abundance, body size and species number in British birds and mammals''. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 351(1337), 265-278.</ref> It is either the heaviest or one of the heaviest birds native to [[Europe]], its closest rivals in mass being [[mute swan]]s (''Cygnus olor'') and [[cinereous vulture]]s (''Aegypius monachus''), which both weigh on average around {{convert|10|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, followed closely by great white pelicans and the [[whooper swan]]s (''Cygnus cygnus'').<ref name= CRC/><ref name= CRC2/> It also appears to have one of the largest wingspans of any living bird, rivaling those of the [[great albatross]]es (''Diomedea'' ssp., in particular the two largest species, the [[wandering albatross]] and [[southern royal albatross]]) and the great white pelican. These four species are the only modern birds with verified wingspans that range over {{convert|350|cm|ftin|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="Harrison"/><ref name= Gilbert/><ref name= Handbook>del Hoyo, et al., ''Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks''. Lynx Edicons (1992), ISBN 978-84-87334-10-8</ref><ref name=Wood>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gerald |title=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-85112-235-9}}</ref>

The somewhat similar-looking [[great white pelican]] broadly overlaps in size but has greater size sexual dimorphism, female great whites can be noticeably smaller than female Dalmatians but male individuals of the two species are essentially the same size and weight.<ref name="Harrison"/><ref name= Handbook/> However, the Dalmatian differs from this other very large species in that it has curly nape [[feather]]s, grey legs and silvery-white (rather than pure white) [[plumage]]. In winter, adult Dalmatian pelicans go from silvery-grey to a dingier brownish-grey cream colour.<ref name= Arkive>[http://www.arkive.org/dalmatian-pelican/pelecanus-crispus/ Dalmatian pelican videos, photos and facts – Pelecanus crispus]. ARKive. Retrieved on 2012-08-22.</ref> Immature birds are grey and lack the pink facial patch of immature white pelicans. The loose feathers around the forehead of the Dalmatian pelican can form a W-like-shape on the face right above the bill.<ref name= Handbook/> In the breeding season it has an orange-red lower mandible and pouch against a yellow upper mandible. In winter, the whole bill is a somewhat dull yellow. The [[Beak|bill]], at {{convert|36|to|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, is the second largest of any bird, after the [[Australian pelican]] (''Pelecanus conspicillatus'').<ref name= Handbook/> The bare skin around the eye can vary from yellow to purplish in colour.<ref name=Redlist>[http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=3811 Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus) – BirdLife species factsheet]. Birdlife.org (1998-10-03). Retrieved on 2012-08-22.</ref> Among standard measurements, compared to the great white pelican, the Dalmatian's [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] is slightly shorter, at {{convert|11.6|to|12.2|cm|in|abbr=on}}, but its [[tail]] and [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] length are notably larger, at {{convert|22|to|24|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|68|to|80|cm|in|abbr=on}}, respectively.<ref>[http://avis.indianbiodiversity.org/fauna-of-british-india-2nd-ed-vol-vi-1929/dalmatian-pelican-pelecanus-crispus.html Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus)]. Avis.indianbiodiversity.org. Retrieved on 2012-08-22.</ref><ref>[http://avis.indianbiodiversity.org/pelecaniformes-pelecanidae-pelicans/great-white-pelican-pelecanus-onocrotalus.html Great White Pelican – Pelecanus onocrotalus]. Avis.indianbiodiversity.org. Retrieved on 2012-08-22.</ref> When the Dalmatian pelican is in flight, unlike other pelicans, its wings are solid grayish-white with black tips.<ref name= Handbook/> It is an elegant soaring bird. When a whole flock of Dalmatian pelicans is in flight, all its members move in graceful synchrony, their necks held back like a [[heron|heron's]].

The Dalmatian pelican is often silent, as most pelicans tend to be, although it can be fairly vocal during the mating season, when it may engage in a wide range of guttural, deep vocalisations, including barks, hisses and grunts.<ref name= Arkive/>

==Habitat==
The Dalmatian pelican is found in [[lake]]s, [[river]]s, [[River delta|deltas]] and [[Estuary|estuaries]]. Compared to the great white pelican, the Dalmatian is not as tied to lowland areas and will nest in suitable wetlands with many elevations. It is less opportunistic in breeding habitat selection than the great white, usually returning to a traditional breeding site year after year unless it becomes completely unsuitable. During the winter, Dalmatian pelicans usually stay on ice-free lakes in Europe or ''jheels'' (seasonal lakes) in [[India]]. They also visit, typically during winter, inshore areas along sheltered coasts for feeding.<ref name= Handbook/>
[[File:Dalmatian Pelican Keoladeo Ghana National Park Bharatpur Rajasthan India 17.02.2013.jpg|thumb|A Dalmatian Pelican from the lake of [[Keoladeo National Park|Bharatpur]], [[Rajasthan]], India]]

==Movements==
This pelican usually [[bird migration|migrates]] short distances. It is dispersive in [[Europe]], based on feeding opportunities, with most western birds staying through the winter in the [[Mediterranean]] region. In the [[Danube Delta]], Dalmatian pelicans arrive in March and leave by the end of August. It is more actively migratory in [[Asia]], where most of the birds that breed in [[Russia]] fly down for the winter to the central [[Middle East]], largely around [[Iran]] through to the [[Indian Subcontinent]], from [[Sri Lanka]], [[Nepal]] to central [[India]].<ref name= Arkive/> The pelicans who breed in [[Mongolia]] winter along the east coast of [[China]], including the [[Hong Kong]] area.<ref name=Redlist/>

==Feeding==
This pelican feeds almost entirely on [[fish]]. Preferred prey species can include [[common carp]] (''Cyprinus carpio''), [[European perch]] (''Perca fluviatilis''), [[common rudd]] (''Scardinius erythropthalmus''), [[eel]]s, [[catfish]] (especially [[Siluridae|silurids]] during winter), [[Mullet (fish)|mullet]] and [[northern pike]] (''Esox lucius''), the latter having measured up to {{convert|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} when taken.<ref name= Handbook/><ref name= Arkive/> In the largest remnant colony, located in Greece, the preferred prey is reportedly the native ''[[Alburnus belvica]]''.<ref name=Redlist/> The Dalmatian pelican requires around {{convert|1200|g|lb|abbr=on}} of fish per day and can take locally abundant smaller fish such as [[Goby|gobies]], but usually ignore them in lieu of slightly larger fish.<ref name= Handbook/><ref name= Arkive/> It usually forages alone or in groups of only two or three. It normally swims along, placidly and slowly, until it quickly dunks its head underwater and scoops the fish out, along with great masses of water. The water is dumped out of the sides of the pouch and the fish is swallowed. Occasionally it may feed cooperatively with other pelicans by corralling fish into shallow waters and may even cooperate similarly while fishing alongside [[cormorant]]s in [[Greece]].<ref name= Handbook/> Occasionally, the pelican may not immediately eat the fish contained in its gular pouch, so it can save the prey for later consumption.<ref name= Arkive/> Other small wetlands-dwellers may supplement the diet, including [[crustacean]]s, [[worm]]s, [[beetle]]s and small [[water bird]]s, usually nestlings and eggs.<ref name= Arkive/>

==Breeding==
[[File:Pelecanus crispus MWNH 1925.JPG|thumb|Egg, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden]]]]
Among a highly social family in general, Dalmatian pelicans may have the least social inclinations. This species naturally nests in relatively small groups compared to most other pelican species and sometimes may even nest alone. However, small colonies are usually formed, which regularly include upwards of 250 pairs (especially historically). Occasionally, Dalmatian pelicans may mix in with colonies of great white pelicans.<ref name= Handbook/> Nesting sites selected are usually either [[island]]s in large bodies of water (typically lagoons or river deltas<ref name= Arkive/>) or dense mats of aquatic vegetation, such as extensive [[reedbed]]s of ''[[Phragmites]]'' and ''[[Typha]]''. Due to their large size, these pelicans often trample the vegetation in the area surrounding their nests into the muddy substrate and thus nesting sites may become unsuitably muddy after around three years of usage.<ref name=Redlist/>

The nest is a moderately-sized pile of grass, reeds, sticks and feathers, usually measuring about {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}} deep and {{convert|63|cm|in|abbr=on}} across. Nests are usually located on or near the ground, often being placed on dense floating vegetation. Nests tend to be flimsy until cemented together by droppings. Breeding commences in March or April, about a month before the great white pelican breeds. The Dalmatian pelican lays a clutch of one to six eggs, with two eggs being the norm. Eggs weigh between {{convert|120|and|195|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref>[http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/ducks-geese-pelikanes-and-relatives/pelecanus-crispus Dalmatian Pelican – Pelecanus crispus : WAZA : World Association of Zoos and Aquariums]. WAZA. Retrieved on 2012-08-22.</ref> Incubation, which is split between both parents, lasts for 30 to 34 days. The chicks are born naked but soon sprout white down feathers. When the young are 6 to 7 weeks of age, the pelicans frequently gather in "pods". The offspring fledge at around 85 days and become independent at 100 to 105 days old. Nesting success relies on local environmental conditions, with any where from 58% to 100% of hatchlings successfully surviving to adulthood. The nesting sites often insure limited nest predation, though carnivorous mammals which eat eggs and nestlings can access nests when water levels are low enough for them to cross, as has been recorded with [[wild boar]]s (''Sus scrofa'') destroying nests in [[Bulgaria]].<ref name=Redlist/> [[Jackal]]s, [[fox]]es, [[Gray wolf|wolves]], [[dog]]s (''Canis'' ssp.) and [[Eurasian lynx|lynxes]] (''Lynx'' ssp.) are also regular nest predators when water levels are low and [[white-tailed eagle]]s (''Haliaeetus albicilla'') may attack pelicans at the colony to at least the size of fledglings.<ref>Crivelli, A. J. (April 1996). [http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/wildbirds/action_plans/docs/pelecanus_crispus.pdf Action Plan for the Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus) In Europe]. europa.eu</ref><ref>[http://www.planetofbirds.com/pelecaniformes-pelecanidae-dalmatian-pelican-pelecanus-crispus Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus)]. Planet of Birds (2011-06-08). Retrieved on 2012-08-22.</ref> Sexual maturity is thought to be obtained at three or four years of age.<ref name= Handbook/>

==Status==
[[File:Pelecanus crispus at Beijing Zoo.JPG|thumb|A Dalmatian pelican swimming at [[Beijing Zoo]], China (2008)]]
This species of pelican has declined greatly throughout its range, more so than the white pelican. It is possible that up to 10,000–20,000 pelicans exist at the species level.<ref name=Redlist/> Reportedly, there were once millions of Dalmatian pelicans in [[Romania]] alone.{{fact|date=March 2017}} During the 20th century, the species' numbers underwent a dramatic decline for reasons that are not entirely understood. The most likely reason was habitat loss due to human activities such as the drainage of wetlands and land development. Colonies are regularly disturbed by human activity, and, like all pelicans, the parents may temporarily leave their nest if threatened, which then exposes the chicks to the risk of predation. Occasionally, Dalmatian pelicans may be shot by fishermen who believe the birds are dangerously depleting the fish population and hence threatening their livelihood.<ref name= Arkive/> While such killings are generally on a small scale, the worry that these pelicans over-exploit the fishing stock persists in many locales. Another probable reason for the decline in the species' population is poaching. In [[Mongolia]], the local people clandestinely kill these pelicans to use or sell their bills as pouches.<ref name= Arkive/> On a typical day in a commercial Mongolian marketplace, as many as fifty pelican bills may be on offer for sale, and they are considered such a rare prize that ten horses and thirty sheep are considered a fair price to trade for a single pelican.<ref name=Oriental>{{cite journal|author=Nyambayar, B. |author2=Bräunlich, A. |author3=Tseveenmyadag, N. |author4=Shar, S. |author5=Gantogs, S. |last-author-amp=yes |year=2007 |url=http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/ba7pdfs/dalmatianpelican.pdf |title=Conservation of the critically endangered east Asian population of Dalmatian Pelican Pelecanus crispus in western Mongolia |journal=BirdingASIA |volume=7 |pages=68–74 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120727025010/http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/ba7pdfs/dalmatianpelican.pdf |archivedate=2012-07-27 |df= }}</ref> Due to exploitation at all stages of the life cycle, the species is critically endangered in its Mongolian range, with a total population of fewer than 130 individual birds.<ref name=Redlist/><ref name= Oriental/> Dalmatian pelicans also regularly fly into power-lines and are killed by electrocution.<ref name=Redlist/> In Greece, pelicans are often so disturbed by power boats, usually ones bearing tourists—that they become unable to feed and die of malnourishment.<ref name= Handbook/> In 1994 in Europe there were over a thousand breeding pairs, most of them in [[Greece]], but also in [[Ukraine]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Romania]], [[Bulgaria]] ([[Srebarna Nature Reserve]]) and [[Albania]] ([[Karavasta Lagoon]]). They have been considered extinct in [[Croatia]] since the 1950s, although a single Dalmatian pelican was observed there in 2011.<ref>Coleman, Loren. (2011-03-24) [http://www.cryptomundo.com/cryptozoo-news/dalmatian-pelican/ Croatian Dalmatian Pelican Sighted]. Cryptomundo. Retrieved on 2012-08-22.</ref> The largest single remaining colony is at [[Small Prespa Lake]] (shared between Albania and Greece), with around 1,400 pairs, with approximately 450 pairs left in the [[Danube Delta]].<ref name=Redlist/> The country with the largest breeding population today, including about 70% of pairs or possibly over 3,000 pairs, is Russia. Worldwide, there are an estimated 3,000–5,000 breeding pairs.<ref name=Redlist/> One report of approximately 8,000 Dalmatian pelicans in India turned out to be a congregation of misidentified great white pelicans.<ref name= Handbook/>

The Dalmatian pelican is one of the species to which the ''Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds'' ([[AEWA]]) applies. Conservation efforts have been undertaken on behalf of the species, especially in Europe.<ref name=Redlist/> Although they normally nest on the ground, Dalmatian pelicans have nested on platforms put out in [[Turkey]], [[Greece]], [[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]] in order to encourage them to breed.<ref name= Handbook/> Rafts over water have also been set up for the species to use in Greece and Bulgaria.<ref name=Redlist/> Power-lines have also been marked or dismantled in areas adjacent to colonies in these countries. Additionally, water-level management and educational programs may be aiding them at a local level.<ref name=Redlist/> Although efforts have been undertaken in Asia, there is a much higher rate of poaching, shooting and habitat destruction there, which may make conservation efforts more difficult.<ref name= Oriental/> In 2012, when unusually frigid winter conditions caused the [[Caspian Sea]] to freeze over, it resulted in the death from starvation of at least twenty of the Dalmatian pelicans that overwinter there. Despite local authorities' initial attempts to discourage it, many people there turned out with fish and hand-fed the birds, apparently enabling the huge pelicans to survive the winter.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17117482 Trapped Dalmatian pelicans hand-fed in frozen Caspian Sea]. Bbc.co.uk (2012-02-21). Retrieved on 2012-08-22.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Pelecanus crispus}}
*[http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3811&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet.]
*[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/directive/birdactionplan/pelecanuscrispus.htm European Commission for Environment: Action plan for the Dalmatian Pelican] (1994)
*[http://finnature.fi/photo_album.html.14.html Dalmatian pelican photo gallery by Jari Peltomäki]
*[http://www.euronatur.org/fileadmin/docs/jagd/ADRIATIC_FLYWAY_2009_Conference_Proceedings.pdf Conference Proceedings of the 2009 Adriatic Flyway Conference in Ulcinj, Montenegro]

{{Pelecaniformes}}

{{taxonbar}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:pelican, Dlmatian}}
[[Category:Pelecanus|Dalmatian pelican]]
[[Category:Pelicans|Dalmatian pelican]]
[[Category:Birds of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Birds of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Birds of Central Asia]]
[[Category:Birds of Western Asia]]
[[Category:Asian migratory birds]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1832|Dalmatian pelican]]

Montagu's harrier

2017-04-13T15:14:41Z

Couiros22:

{{Taxobox
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22695405 |title=''Circus pygargus'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2013 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| image = Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus).jpg
| range_map = Circus pygargus dis.PNG
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Accipitriformes]]
| familia = [[Accipitridae]]
| genus = ''[[Circus (genus)|Circus]]''
| species = '''''C. pygargus'''''
| binomial = ''Circus pygargus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])
| range_map_caption = Range of ''C. pygargus'' {{leftlegend|#00FF00|Breeding range|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#0080FF|Wintering range|outline=gray}}
}}

The '''Montagu's harrier '''(''Circus pygargus'') is a [[bird migration|migratory]] [[bird of prey]] of the [[harrier (bird)|harrier]] family. Its common name commemorates the British [[natural history|naturalist]] [[George Montagu (naturalist)|George Montagu]].

==Taxonomy==
The first [[Species description|formal description]] of Montagu's harrier was by the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1758 in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' under the [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Falco pygargus''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=C. | authorlink=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title= Systema Naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, Volume 1| edition=10th | page=89 | publisher=Holmiae:Laurentii Salvii | language=Latin | url=http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/726996}}</ref> The [[genus]] ''[[Circus]]'' was introduced by the French naturalist [[Bernard Germain de Lacépède]] in 1799.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Lacépède | first=Bernard Germain de | authorlink=Bernard Germain de Lacépède | year=1799 | title=Discours d'ouverture et de clôture du cours d'histoire naturelle | chapter=Tableau des sous-classes, divisions, sous-division, ordres et genres des oiseux | language=French | publisher=Plassan | place=Paris | page=4 | chapter-url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6uhAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA78 }} Page numbering starts at one for each of the three sections.</ref><ref>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Cottrell | editor2-first=G. William | year=1979 | title=Check-list of Birds of the World. Volume 1 | edition=2nd | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts | page=316 | url=http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16108956 }}</ref> The genus name is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]]. ''Circus'' is from ''kirkos'', referring to a bird of prey named for its circling flight (''kirkos'', "circle"), probably the [[hen harrier]], and ''pygargus'' is [[Modern Latin]] derived from Greek ''pugargos'', from ''puge'',"rump" and ''argos'', "shining white". The species name was formerly used for the hen harrier before Montagu's was identified as a different species.<ref name=Jobling>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages=109, 325}}</ref>
[[File:Montagu's Harrier Male.jpg|alt= Montagu's Harrier Male|thumb|Montagu's Harrier Male, Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh, India]]

==Identification==
[[File:Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) In flight.jpg|thumb|Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) In flight from Tal Chappar]]

===Plumage===
[[Sexual dimorphism]] is particularly apparent in the [[plumage]] of this species. Adult males are characterized by their overall pale grey plumage contrasting with black wingtips. Compared with other harriers this species has characteristic black bands along the secondaries, both above and below the wing and rusty streaks on belly and flanks. Adult females have a broadly similar plumage to that of [[Pallid harrier|pallid]] and [[hen harrier]]s. The underparts are mostly pale yellow-brown, the belly with longitudinal stripes and the wing coverts spotted. The upper parts are uniform dark brown except for the white upper tail coverts ("rump"), and the sightly paler central wing coverts.

The [[Juvenile (organism)|juvenile]] plumage resembles that of the female, but differs by the belly and under wing coverts which are not spotted, but uniformly red brown in colour.

A [[Melanism|melanistic]] form occurs regularly in this species. In this form the male is much darker than usual, with a black head, brownish black above and grey underparts. The melanistic female is entirely chocolate brown except for grey flight feathers. Partially melanistic morphs can also be found.

===Flight===
The Montagu's harrier has a particularly graceful flight, with powerful and elegant wingbeats which give an impression of buoyancy and ease. In true harrier fashion it searches the countryside, flying low, and generally holds its wings with a marked positive [[dihedral (aircraft)|dihedral]].

[[File:Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) grounded.jpg|thumb|Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) from Tal Chappar]]

===Dimensions===
The Montagu's harrier is a deceptively small raptor, though it appears larger because of its large wing surface compared to small body weight, which gives it a typically buoyant flight. The female is larger than the male because the female needs to produce eggs, however this is not apparent in the field.

* Wingspan: {{Convert|97|-|115|cm|in|abbr=on}}
* Length: {{Convert|43|-|47|cm|in|abbr=on}} (tail: {{Convert|16|-|18|cm|in|abbr=on}})
* [[body weight|Weight]] (average):
** Male: {{Convert|265|g|oz|abbr=on}}
** Female: {{Convert|345|g|oz|abbr=on}}

===Risk of confusion===
The Montagu's harrier can be confused with several species that exist within the same range. The most similar are the [[hen harrier]] and the [[pallid harrier]]. The male is easily distinguished from other species as its plumage is distinctly darker and more mottled than in the males of hen or pallid harriers. However, distinguishing females and juveniles is more difficult. Usually the Montagu's harrier appears more slender in flight than the hen harrier with a longer tail, longer and narrower wings and more pointed "hands". Also its flight is more elegant than the hen harrier, with more elastic, almost tern-like wingbeats. The distinction between female pallid and Montagu's harriers is the most delicate and can only be made in good conditions as the proportions are similar. The best recognition character is the pale collar around the neck of female and juvenile pallid harriers which is not present in the Montagu's.

==Habitat==
This species can be found in a middle-latitude band of predominantly [[temperate|temperate climate]]s, but also in [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]], and [[boreal climate|boreal]] zones. Although it has been found nesting up to {{Convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}}, it is essentially a lowland species, and nests mostly in broad river valleys, plains, and levels bordering lakes and the sea. It can breed in [[wetland]]s, though these are often smaller and dryer than those used by the [[marsh harrier]]. It also utilizes [[Heath (habitat)|heaths]], [[dunes]], [[Moorland|moor]]s, and can be found in the [[steppe]]. It adapts to [[shrubland]]s in [[gorse]] or [[Calluna|heather]] and to areas planted with young [[conifer]]s.

[[File:Montagu's Harrier, juvenile, Bangalore, India.jpg|thumb|Adult Female]]
When no other suitable habitat is available this harrier will nest in agricultural farmlands where it is vulnerable to early harvesting. Amongst these it chooses especially grasslands and [[cereal]] crops such as [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[oats]] and [[colza]]. In western Europe, up to 70% of the population breeds in artificial habitats.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}
[[File:Montagu's Harrier- Male.JPG|thumb|Adult Male]]
In short, for breeding the Montagu's harrier requires a large open area, with sufficiently tall ground vegetation to afford cover without being overgrown. It favours posts on which both male and female can rest and survey the breeding area: these can be fenceposts, small trees, or rocky outcrops. When hunting, in any season, it prefers areas of low or sparse vegetation where prey is more visible. Densely settled areas are generally avoided and it is highly susceptible to disturbance.

==Food and foraging methods==
The diet consists mainly of small [[rodent]]s, small [[bird]]s, bird eggs, reptiles (including [[snake]]s) and large [[insect]]s (mainly Orthoptera, which are numerically the most common).<ref name=Arroyo1997/>

As this bird has a wide distribution, it will take whatever prey is available in the area where it nests; in the northern range it will mainly take [[ground squirrel]]s and [[rabbit]]s, whereas in southern [[Europe]], it mostly takes small [[reptile]]s and large [[insect]]s. In areas where the food supply is composed almost exclusively of [[rodent]]s, the breeding success depends greatly on the cyclic fluctuations of [[vole]] populations.<ref name=Salamolard2000/>

Prey is caught while flying along fixed routes at low heights and constant low speeds (c. {{Convert|30|kph|mph|abbr=on}}), as is typical of harriers. The flight is considered lighter and more dexterous than other harriers enabling it to take more agile prey. When possible it often follows the edges of various vegetation to catch its prey by surprise. This is taken after a short stoop, though fast running animals and flying birds can be chased over a short distance.

During the breeding season, the male will provision the female and later the young with food. The rate of provisioning increases from 5 to 6 times per day during incubation to 7 to 10 times per day when young have hatched, though the male can be handicapped by wet, foggy or windy weather. In a manner typical of harriers, prey is passed between partners in the air: The female flies underneath the male, who drops the prey for her to catch. The male hunts over a large area up to {{Convert|12|km|mi|abbr=on}} away from the nest. The female hunts closer to the nest, up to {{Convert|1|km|mi|abbr=on}} away, and only after the young have hatched.

==Status and distribution==
This species can still be found throughout most of the Western [[Palearctic]]. In most [[Europe]]an countries there is at least a small population, except in [[Norway]] where it is not present. The breeding range extends as far east as the [[Ural Mountains|Ural]]s, whereas the most western population is that of [[Portugal]]. Breeding also occurs in northern [[Africa]], mostly in [[Morocco]]. In [[Great Britain]], the species is limited to southern England. In [[Ireland]] the species is rarely seen, and mainly in the South, although there are a number of breeding records, the most recent from 1971.<ref name=irishbirding/> Despite having a wide distribution, this bird is not common in many areas and has strong populations only in France, Spain, [[Russia]], [[Belarus]] and [[Poland]] where the greater part of the European population can be found. Breeding sites frequently change, with some sporadic nesting occurring outside known breeding areas, however clear signs of reduced range are apparent and are associated with population decline.

===Status in Britain===
Montagu's harrier is a rare breeding bird in Britain. There are two breeding areas – the area surrounding [[The Wash]], and downland areas of southern England, from [[Dorset]] and [[Hampshire]] north to [[Oxfordshire]]. Away from these areas it occurs only as a scarce migrant. One site, Estuary Farm, near North Wootton in west Norfolk, a special observation area was negotiated with local landowners, so that pressure could be taken off other nesting pairs.<ref name=Evans1996/> In 2005, a pair bred on the [[Holkham]] estate.<ref name=holkham2006/> In 2015, it was reported that some Montagu's harrier were nesting at [[Blacktoft Sands]], Humberside.<ref>{{cite news|title=UK's rarest bird of prey nesting at Humber site|url=http://www.scunthorpetelegraph.co.uk/UK-s-rarest-bird-prey-nesting-Humber-site/story-26742849-detail/story.html|work=Scunthorpe Telegraph|date=22 June 2015}}</ref>

==Population trends==
The population for the western [[Palearctic]] is estimated at 35,000–50,000 pairs. The global population is unknown and could be anything between 150,000 and 200,000 individuals(Birdlife International, 2004). This uncertainty is due to the fact that most of the world's population is situated in [[Russia]] and [[former Soviet republics]] where it is not quantified.

The evolution has been paradoxical throughout the 20th century. In the beginning of the century up to the 1940s, during a period when other raptors greatly decreased because of human persecution, the Montagu's harrier actually increased its population and breeding range, breeding for the first time in [[Denmark]] in the 1900s, and greatly increasing elsewhere. However, from the 1940s onwards it has decreased rapidly. This is due to several negative factors: first, the massive use of agricultural pesticides such as [[DDT]] and other environmental poisons was extremely detrimental to the harriers themselves, as well as rarefying their prey, in particular large [[insect]]s. The modification of agricultural practises, with an evolution towards more intensive farming also puts pressure on harriers, with faster growing crops preventing those birds that nest in farmlands from finishing their nidification before their clutches are destroyed by harvesting machines. Despite a generally negative trend there are local cases when the population has increased, such as in [[Sweden]] or in Germany<ref name=Belting/> in the 1990s. These local trends show that while they have access to suitable habitats and food supply there can still be positive developments.

==Social behaviour and breeding==
It can be both solitary and gregarious at times, both during the breeding season and in winter quarters. A breeding pair may associate with others to form loose [[Bird colony|colonies]], with as many as 30 nests in the same area, sometimes as close as {{Convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} apart. Semi-colonial nesting is not due to a shortage of nesting sites, but arises rather from the need to provide a better defence against predators.<ref name=Arroyo2001/> The actual area defended by both partners covers only {{Convert|300|-|400|m|ft|abbr=on}} around the nest, and in case of colonial nesting the response to predators may be [[community|communal]]. Other species attacked and mobbed include large [[Bird of prey|raptors]], [[corvidae|corvid]]s, and [[fox]]es.
[[File:Circus pygargus MWNH 0857.JPG|thumb|Egg, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden]]]]
Reproduction begins with the return of both partners to the nesting site, at which point both male and female will start displaying. The display consists of various sky-dances and aerobatic figures that vary according to each individual. Both sexes will display, crying loudly, though the males' displays are more frequent and spectacular. Montagu's harriers breed for the first time when two or three years old, but occasionally one year old females may attempt to nest. Pairs form on the territory, when returning from migration. As the birds are tied to their former nesting sites, they probably mate with the same partner every year. The nest is built by the female, always in tall vegetation. It is a simple construction made of grass, used only for one season. The female lays 3 to 5 eggs which are incubated for 27–40 days. The young leave the nest after 28–42 days and are independent two weeks later.

The males may be [[polygamous]], then having to feed two females and later two broods, either simultaneously or consecutively.

==Migration==
The Montagu's harrier is a long distance [[bird migration|migrant]]. Birds from [[Eurasia]] spend the winter in sub-[[Sahara]]n [[Africa]], while those from the eastern part of the range migrate to the [[Indian subcontinent]]. In Europe, the first birds start to move at the beginning of August and most have left by mid-October. They travel over a broad front, crossing the Mediterranean at various points, and only a small number are observed at migration choke points. Western birds don't go further south than the [[gulf of Guinea]], but some eastern birds travel as far as [[South Africa]]. In Africa, their diet is composed mostly of insects and birds, and it is possible that they follow [[locust]] swarms.<ref name=grauwekiekendief/>
[[File:Youngmonties.jpg|thumb|Young Montagu's harriers during relocation.]]
Spring return peaks in April, and most birds have arrived by May though there is evidence that first-year juveniles spend their first summer in the winter quarters

==Conservation issues==
In western Europe, an estimated 70% of breeding pairs nest in agricultural farmlands, especially cereal crops. This makes the Montagu's harrier a very vulnerable species, and very dependent on nest protection. Bird protection [[non-governmental organization]]s participate in their protection, in collaboration with concerned landowners. Once a nest is spotted in a field, it can be safeguarded either by relocating it to a safer area or by creating a protected space which will not be harvested.<ref name=grauwekiekendief2/> In France and in the [[Iberian Peninsula]], an average 60% of nestlings are saved by this kind of measures.<ref name=Arroyo2002/>

==References==

{{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name=Arroyo1997>{{cite journal |last=Arroyo |first=B.E. |title=Diet of Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus in central Spain: analysis of temporal and geographic variation |journal=Ibis |year=1997 |volume=139 |pages=664–672 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919x.1997.tb04689.x}}</ref>

<ref name=Arroyo2001>{{cite journal |last1=Arroyo |first1=Beatriz |last2=Mougeot |first2=François |last3=Bretagnolle |first3=Vincent |year=2001 |title=Colonial breeding and nest defence in Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |issn=0340-5443 |url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14099006}}</ref>

<ref name=Arroyo2002>{{cite journal |last1=Arroyo |first1=Beatriz |first2=Jesús T. |last2=García |first3=Vincent |last3=Bretagnolle |title=Conservation of the Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) in agricultural areas |journal=Animal Conservation |volume=5 |issue=4 |page=283 |date=November 2002 |url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1017/S1367943002004031 |doi=10.1017/s1367943002004031}}</ref>

<ref name=Belting>{{cite journal |last1=Belting |first1=C. |first2=R.M. |last2=Krüger |trans_title=Population development and strategies for the protection of Montagu's Harrier in Bavaria |title=Populationsentwicklung und Schutzstrategien für die Wiesenweihe Circus pygargus in Bayern |language=de |url=http://www.zobodat.at/pdf/Anzeiger-Ornith-Ges-Bayerns_41_2-3_0087-0092.pdf |journal=Ornithologischer Anzeiger |volume=87 |pages=87–92 |year=2002}}</ref>

<ref name=Evans1996>{{cite book |last=Evans |first=Lee G.R. |year=1996 |title=The Ultimate Site Guide to Scarcer British Birds |isbn=1-898918-15-5}}</ref>

<ref name="grauwekiekendief">{{cite web | url=http://werkgroepgrauwekiekendief.nl/ | title=Montagu's harrier migration | website=werkgroepgrauwekiekendief.nl}}</ref>
<ref name="grauwekiekendief2">{{cite web | url=http://werkgroepgrauwekiekendief.nl/ | title=Nest protection put into practice at grauwekiekendief.nl | website=werkgroepgrauwekiekendief.nl}}</ref>

<ref name=holkham2006>{{cite journal |title=Rare Harriers Breed at Holkham |url=http://www.holkham.co.uk/downloads/holkham-newsletter-winter-spring-2006.pdf |journal=Holkham Newsletter |number=11 |year=2006}}</ref>

<ref name=irishbirding>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishbirding.com/birds/web |title=Irish Birding}}</ref>

<ref name=Salamolard2000>{{cite journal |last1=Salamolard |first1=M. |last2=Butet |first2=A. |last3=Leroux |first3=A. |last4=Bretagnolle |first4=V. |year=2000 |title=Responses of an avian predator to variations in prey density at a temperate latitude |journal=Ecology |issn=0012-9658 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[2428:ROAAPT]2.0.CO;2}}</ref>
}}

* {{cite book |editor1-last=Cramp |editor1-first=S. |editor2-last=Simmons |editor2-first=K.E.L. |year=1980 |title=[[The Birds of the Western Palearctic]] |volume=Vol. II |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-857505-X}}
* {{cite book |last=Gensbøl |first=Benny |year=1989 |title=Collins guide to the Birds of Prey of Britain and Europe North Africa and the Middle East |publisher=William Collins Sons and Co Ltd. |isbn=0-00-219176-8}}

== Further reading ==

=== Identification ===
* {{cite journal |last=Forsman |first=Dick |year=1995 |url=http://www.dutchbirding.nl/content/journal/pdf/1995-2.pdf |title=Field identification of female and juvenile Montagu's and Pallid Harriers |journal=[[Dutch Birding]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=41–54}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Circus pygargus}}
{{wikispecies|Circus pygargus}}
* [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/166.pdf Montagu's harrier species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds]
* [http://www.werkgroepgrauwekiekendief.nl/ Website of the Dutch Montagu's harrier foundation]
* [http://www.seaturtle.org/tracking/?project_id=139&dyn=1158053167 Satellite tracking map] - Migration and breeding ecology of Montagu's harriers (Spain)
* {{ARKive}}
* [http://aulaenred.ibercaja.es/wp-content/uploads/115_MontagusHarrierCpygargus.pdf Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.9 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze]
* {{InternetBirdCollection|montagus-harrier-circus-pygargus}}
* {{VIREO|montagu's+harrier}}

{{taxonbar}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:harrier, Montaigu's}}
[[Category:Harriers (birds)|Montagu's harrier]]
[[Category:Birds of Europe]]
[[Category:Birds of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Vagrant birds of Africa]]
[[Category:Vagrant birds of South Asia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1758|Montagu's harrier]]

Black-headed penduline tit

2017-04-12T08:42:30Z

Couiros22:

{{Taxobox
| name = Black-headed penduline tit
| image =
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22735387 |title=''Remiz macronyx'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| regnum = [[Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[Passeriformes]]
| familia = [[Remizidae]]
| genus = ''[[Remiz]]''
| species = '''''R. macronyx'''''
| binomial = ''Remiz macronyx''
| binomial_authority = ([[Nikolai Severtzov|Severtzov]], 1873)
| synonyms = }}
The '''black-headed penduline tit''' (''Remiz macronyx'') is a species of [[bird]] in the family [[Remizidae]].
It is found in central [[Asia]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:tit, penduline, black-headed}}
[[Category:Remiz|black-headed penduline tit]]
[[Category:Birds of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Birds of Central Asia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1873|black-headed penduline tit]]

{{Remizidae-stub}}

Black lark

2017-04-12T08:12:13Z

Couiros22:

{{Taxobox
| name = Black lark
| image = Stamps of Kazakhstan, 2013-65.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22717301 |title=''Melanocorypha yeltoniensis'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Passeriformes]]
| familia = [[Alaudidae]]
| genus = ''[[Melanocorypha]]''
| species = '''''M. yeltoniensis'''''
| binomial = ''Melanocorypha yeltoniensis''
| binomial_authority = ([[Johann Reinhold Forster|Forster]], 1768)
| synonyms = * ''Alauda yeltoniensis''
}}

The '''black lark''' (''Melanocorypha yeltoniensis'') is a species of [[lark]] in the family [[Alaudidae]] found in south-eastern Russia and Kazakhstan.

==Taxonomy and systematics==
The black lark was originally placed in the genus ''[[Alauda]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=811FC71929CD3B00|title=Melanocorypha yeltoniensis - Avibase|website=avibase.bsc-eoc.org|access-date=2016-12-15}}</ref> The current genus name is from [[Ancient Greek]]. ''Melanocorypha'' is from ''melas'', "black", and ''koruphos'' a term used by ancient writers for a now unknown bird, but here confused with ''korudos'', "lark". The specific ''yeltoniensis'' is from [[Lake Elton|Lake Yelton]] in the [[Volgograd]] region of Russia.<ref name=job>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher= Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages = 247, 412}}</ref>

==Description==
This is a large, robust lark, {{Convert|18|-|20.5|cm|abbr = on}} in length. The adult male is unmistakable, being all black with some pale feather fringes on its back, and with a yellowish or pink bill. The female is undistinguished in comparison, mainly dark-blotched grey above and paler below. Her legs and underwing are black.

The song is like a frantic version of that of [[skylark]].

==Distribution and habitat==
This is a bird of open [[steppe]], often near water. It is partially [[bird migration|migratory]], with birds from the northwest of its breeding range moving south-east to winter further into Russia and neighbouring countries, as far as the northern [[Black Sea]] coasts in southern Ukraine.

The black lark is a very rare vagrant away from its breeding range, with records during both spring and autumn passage periods, and also in winter; the following is a complete list of European records away from the breeding range and normal wintering range as of 2005.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}

* 1803 Italy. A male at [[Alessandria]], [[Piedmont]], on an unknown date in autumn
* 19th Century Austria. Three males, one shot, at [[Breitensee]], [[Vienna]], on an unknown date between 1857 & 1874
* 1874 [[North Sea]]. A female on [[Heligoland]] (then British) on 27 April
* 1892 North Sea. A male on Heligoland (then German) on 27 July
* 1897 Moldova. One in March
* 1900 Romania. One in [[Dobruja]] in March
* 1914 Turkey. One at [[Küçükçekmece]], [[Istanbul]], on 14 October
* 1929 Malta. One in winter
* 1930 Greece. One at [[Athens]] in spring
* 1958 Greece A male at Athens on 20 April
* 1961 Italy. One at [[Manfredonia]], [[Apulia]], on 3 May
* 1963 Greece. A flock of eight at [[Lake Koronia]] on 20 February
* 1964 Greece. Two at the [[Axios Delta]] on 8 February
* 1981 Czech Republic. A male at [[Zakupy]] on 28 November
* 1984 Great Britain. ([[England]]) A male at [[Spurn]], [[Yorkshire]] on 27 April
* 1988 Poland. One at [[Kosienice]] on 17 January
* 1989 Finland. A male at [[Joensuu]] on 24 March
* 1989 Finland. A male at [[Korppoo]] on 8 April
* 1993 Sweden. A male at [[Karlstad]] on 6 & 7 May
* 1995 Bulgaria. A female at [[Cape Kaliakra]] on 25 May
* 2003 Great Britain. ([[Wales]]) A male at [[RSPB South Stack]], [[Anglesey]] from 1 to 8 June

An individual was also recorded on an unknown date (prior to 2003) in Lebanon.

==Behaviour and ecology==
Its nest is on the ground, with 4–5 [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s being laid. Food is seeds and insects, the latter especially in the breeding season. It is gregarious in winter.

==References==
{{Commons category|Melanocorypha yeltoniensis}}
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:lark, black}}
[[Category:Melanocorypha|black lark]]
[[Category:Birds of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Eurasian migratory birds]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1768|black lark]]

Sulphur-bellied warbler

2017-04-09T07:38:40Z

Couiros22:

{{Taxobox
| name = Sulphur-bellied warbler
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22715278 |title=''Phylloscopus griseolus'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| image = Sulpher-bellied Warbler (Phylloscopus griseolus)at Sindhrot near Vadodara, Gujrat Pix 175.jpg
| image_caption = At [[Sindhrot]] in the [[Vadodara]] District of [[Gujarat]], [[India]].
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Passeriformes]]
| familia = [[Phylloscopidae]]
| genus = ''[[Phylloscopus]]''
| species = '''''P. griseolus'''''
| binomial = ''Phylloscopus griseolus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Edward Blyth|Blyth]], 1847)

}}
The '''sulphur-bellied warbler''' (''Phylloscopus griseolus'') is a species of leaf-warbler found in the [[Palearctic]] region. They were earlier also known by the name of '''olivaceous leaf-warbler'''.

Like other leaf-warblers it gleans insects from small branches and leaves. They are found on rocky hill and scrub forest habitats.

The species is found in small groups and has a tendency to forage low in the vegetation sometimes even hopping on the ground. They have a single note ''cheep'' call.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Sulpher-bellied Warbler (Phylloscopus griseolus) W IMG 4562.jpg|In [[Hyderabad, India]]
File:Sulpher-bellied Warbler (Phylloscopus griseolus) W IMG 4560.jpg|In [[Hyderabad, India]]
File:Sulphur Bellied Warbler.jpg|thumb|Vasai, Maharashtra, India
File:Sulpher-bellied Warbler (Phylloscopus griseolus) at Sindhrot near Vadodara, Gujrat Pix 174.jpg|thumb|left|At [[Sindhrot]] in [[Vadodara]] District of [[Gujarat]], [[India]]
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:warbler, sulphur-bellied}}
[[Category:Phylloscopus|sulphur-bellied warbler]]
[[Category:Birds of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Birds of Tajikistan]]
[[Category:Birds of Kyrgyzstan]]
[[Category:Birds of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Birds of Mongolia]]
[[Category:Birds of Western China]]
[[Category:Birds of North China]]
[[Category:Vagrant birds of South Asia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1847|sulphur-bellied warbler]]

{{Phylloscopidae-stub}}

Large-billed reed warbler

2017-04-07T09:05:51Z

Couiros22:

{{Taxobox
| name = Large-billed reed warbler
| image=Acrocephalus orinus Tajikistan.jpg
| image_caption = An adult large-billed reed warbler caught at breeding grounds in the Pamir Mountains, Tajikistan
| status = EN
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22729551 |title=''Acrocephalus orinus'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Passeriformes]]
| superfamilia = [[Sylvioidea]]
| familia = [[Acrocephalidae]]
| genus = ''[[Acrocephalus (bird)|Acrocephalus]] ''
| species = '''''A. orinus'''''
| binomial = ''Acrocephalus orinus''
| binomial_authority = [[Harry Church Oberholser|Oberholser]], 1905
}}

The '''large-billed reed warbler''' (''Acrocephalus orinus'') is an [[Old World warbler]] in the genus ''[[Acrocephalus (bird)|Acrocephalus]]''. The species has been dubbed as "the world's least known bird".<ref>[http://www.birdlife.org/news/news/2007/03/acrocephalus_orinus_rediscovery.html BirdLife report]</ref> It was known from a single specimen collected in India in 1867 and rediscovered in the wild in [[Thailand]] in 2006. The identity of the bird caught in Thailand was established by matching [[DNA]] sequences extracted from [[feather]]s; the bird was released. After the rediscovery in the wild a second specimen was discovered amid ''[[Acrocephalus dumetorum]]'' specimens in the collections of the [[Natural History Museum at Tring]].<ref>[http://www.birdlife.org/news/pr/2007/03/acrocephalus_orinus_rediscovered.html Birdlife International] Accessed March 2007</ref> A breeding area was found in Afghanistan in 2009 and studies in 2011 pointed to its breeding in Kazakhstan and Tajikistan. One bird was found in the [[Baikka Wetland]] in Srimangal, [[Bangladesh]] on 7 December 2011.<ref name="p-alo">[http://www.prothom-alo.com/detail/date/2011-12-09/news/207453 "Rare Bird in Baikka Wetland", Daily Prothom Alo]</ref>

==Description==
[[Image:OrinusWing.svg|120px|left|thumb|Primary tip shape]]
This species has the upper plumage and visible portions of wings and tail olive-brown while the underside is pale creamy with the underwing and axillaries paler.

The length is about {{convert|5|in|mm}} with the tail being {{convert|2.3|in|mm}} and the wing {{convert|2.4|in|mm|adj=on}} long. The tarsus is {{convert|0.85|in|mm|adj=on}} while the bill from [[gape]] is {{convert|0.8|in|mm|adj=on}}. The first primary measures {{convert|0.35|in|mm|adj=on}} while the second is intermediate in length between the ninth and tenth. The closed tail appears graduated with the difference between the longest and shortest feathers being {{convert|0.4|in|mm}}. The type specimen was obtained in the Sutlej valley ("Sukedje valley"<ref>{{cite book|author=Baker, EC Stuart|title=Fauna of British Indian Birds. Volume 7|edition=2nd|page=170|url=https://archive.org/stream/BakerFbiBirds7/BakerFBI7#page/n177/mode/1up/search/orinus|year=1930|publisher=Taylor and Francis, London}}</ref>) not far from Rampur.<ref>Oates, E. W. (1889) Fauna of British India. Birds. Volume 1.</ref>

The upper mandible is dark, but the cutting edges and entire lower mandible are pale. The tarsi, toes and claws appear pale brown. The hind claw is longer than in ''dumetorum''. The tips of the tail feathers are pointed and more acutely lanceolate than in ''dumetorum'' or ''[[Acrocephalus concinens]]''. The primary tips are broad and rather squarer. Recent observers note that it has a habit of fanning out its tail open as it forages.

The specimens from Afghanistan and Kazakhstan suggest that they breed in Central Asia and moult indicates that they migrate along the Himalayas to winter in northern India and Southeast Asia. Sequence variation points to a stable or shrinking population structure.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Svensson L., Prŷs-Jones R., Rasmussen P.C., Olsson U. | year = 2008 | title = Discovery of ten new specimens of large-billed reed warbler Acrocephalus orinus, and new insights into its distributional range | url = | journal = Journal of Avian Biology | volume = 39 | issue = 6| pages = 605–610 | doi=10.1111/j.1600-048x.2008.04634.x}}</ref>

==History==
It was first collected by [[Allan Octavian Hume]] in the [[Sutlej Valley]] near Rampur, [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[India]] on 13 November 1867. This specimen (BMNH registration no. 1886.7.8. 1742) was first provisionally described as ''Phyllopneuste macrorhyncha'' ([[Allan Octavian Hume|Hume]], 1869<ref>Hume, A. 1869. Ibis 2 (5): 355–357 (no title).</ref>) but the name was changed two years later to ''Acrocephalus macrorhynchus'' (Hume, 1871). [[Harry Church Oberholser|H C Oberholser]] however pointed out in 1905 that this was unacceptable because a specimen from Egypt described by [[Johann Wilhelm von Müller|von Müller]] in 1853 as ''Calamoherpe macrorhyncha'' turned out to be ''Acrocephalus stentoreus''; ''Acrocephalus macrorhynchus'' was abandoned in favour of ''A. orinus''. The identity of the species was in question and until 2002 was considered as a synonym of the [[clamorous reed warbler]] (''Acrocephalus stentoreus'').<ref>Grimmett, R., Inskipp, C. & Inskipp, T. 1998. Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. London: A. & C. Black.</ref> Some others considered it an aberrant Blyth's reed warbler. A recent re-check of the morphology<ref>Vaurie, C. (1955) Systematic Notes on Palearctic Birds. No. 18:Supplementary Notes on Corvidae, Timaliinae, Alaudidae, Sylviinae, Hirundinidae, and Turdinae. American Museum Novitates. 1753 [http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/5405/1/N1753.pdf]</ref> and the [[mtDNA]] suggested that it was a distinct species.<ref>Bensch, S and D. Pearson (2002) The Large-billed Reed Warbler ''Acrocephalus orinus'' revisited. Ibis (2002), 144:259–267 [http://ask.lub.lu.se/archive/00020515/01/Bensch_etal_Ibis_2002.pdf PDF] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127075912/http://ask.lub.lu.se/archive/00020515/01/Bensch_etal_Ibis_2002.pdf |date=2007-11-27 }} [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/viewer.fcgi?db=nucleotide&val=21396632 Nucleotide sequence]</ref> An additional ten new specimens in collections were identified in 2008. These included specimens collected by [[John Biddulph]] from Gilgit and [[Walter Norman Koelz|W N Koelz]] from Zebak.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Svensson, L.|author2=Prys-Jones, R.|author3=Rasmussen, P. C.|author4=Olsson, U.|last-author-amp=yes|year=2008 | title=Discovery of ten new specimens of large-billed reed warbler ''Acrocephalus orinus'', and new insights into its distributional range|journal=J. Avian Biol.|volume=39|pages=605–661|doi=10.1111/j.1600-048x.2008.04634.x}}</ref>

==Rediscovery==
On 27 March 2006 a living specimen was caught at the Laem Phak Bia Environmental Research and Development Project in [[Phetchaburi Province|Phetchaburi]], [[Thailand]] by ornithologist Philip Round of [[Mahidol University]]. The bird was [[Bird ringing|ringed]] and two feathers were extracted; DNA from them was found to match the DNA of the 1867 specimen.<ref>The Nation, [http://www.nationmultimedia.com/2007/03/07/headlines/headlines_30028700.php Bird comes back from the dead], 7 March 2007</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Round Philip D., Hansson Bengt, Pearson David J., Kennerley Peter R., Bensch Staffan | year = 2007 | title = Lost and found: the enigmatic large-billed reed warbler ''Acrocephalus orinus'' rediscovered after 139 years | url = http://luur.lub.lu.se/luur?func=downloadFile&fileOId=624733 | journal = Journal of Avian Biology | volume = 38 | issue = 2| page = 133 }}</ref>

Based on the short and rounded wings, earlier studies had suggested that the species was likely to be a short-distant migrant or a resident. The rediscoveries of a second museum specimen from a different location and the wild specimen from Thailand suggest that this may not be so.

Some field identifications from West Bengal and central India were subsequently reported based on behaviour<ref>Raju, David, Praveen J. & Mike Prince (2009) A possible record of Large-billed Reed-warbler ''Acrocephalus orinus'' from Kanha Tiger Reserve, central India. Indian Birds 4(4):130-133</ref> but captured specimens did not appear to match the species.<ref>Raju, DR, S Balachandran, Praveen J, CR Sarath & Mike Prince (2009) More news on the ''Acrocephalus'' warblers at Kanha Tiger Reserve. Indian Birds 5(2):46-47</ref>

A breeding site of the large-billed reed warbler ''Acrocephalus orinus'', was discovered in the [[Wakhan Corridor]] of the [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]] of north-eastern [[Afghanistan]] by Researcher Robert Timmins of the [[Wildlife Conservation Society]] who was studying aviary communities in the Pamir Mountains. He came across a small brown warbler and recorded its song. Dr. Timmins did not realize the importance of his discovery until he visited a Natural History Museum in Tring, England. There he examined a specimen of a large-billed reed warbler, which looked identical to the bird he had seen and recorded.

A team of ornithologists, including Afghan scientists of the [[Wildlife Conservation Society]], confirmed his discovery by capturing, sampling and releasing almost 20 specimens of the bird in 2009, the largest number ever recorded, using a combination of field observations, museum specimens, DNA sequencing, and also the first known audio recording of the species that were already made in 2008.<ref>[http://www.birdlife.org/news/news/2010/01/warbler_breeding.html "'World's least known bird' found breeding in Afghanistan"]</ref><ref>[http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/news/large-billed-reed-warbler.html#cr ""World's Least Known Bird" breeding site discovered in Afghanistan"]</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=BirdingASIA |volume=12 |year=2009| pages=42–45|title=The discovery of Large-billed Reed Warblers ''Acrocephalus orinus'' in north-eastern Afghanistan|author1=Timmins RJ |author2=Naqueebullah Mostafawi |author3=Ali Madad Rajabi |author4=Hafizullah Noori |author5=Stephane Ostrowski |author6=Urban Olsson |author7=Lars Svensson |author8=Colin M. Poole |url=http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/ba12pdfs/Timmins-LBWarbler.pdf}}</ref>

A study by Russian ornithologists in 2011 indicated that the species had been misidentified as ''A. dumetorum'' in museum collections and that the species may be breeding in Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, eastern Uzbekistan and south-eastern Kazakhstan.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Koblik EA |author2=Red'kin YA |author3=Meer MS |author4=Derelle R |author5=Golenkina SA |author6=Kondrashov FA |author7=VY Arkhipov |year=2011| title= Acrocephalus orinus: A Case of Mistaken Identity| journal= PLoS ONE |volume=6| issue=4|page=e17716|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0017716 | pmid=21526114 | pmc=3081296}}</ref>

Nests were found in 2011 in the [[Panj river]] valley, Tajikistan.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Kvartalnov P.V. |author2=Samotskaya V.V. |author3=Abdulnazarov A.G. |year=2011 |title=From museum collections to live birds |journal=Priroda |issue=12 |pages=56–58 |url=http://www.mendeley.com/download/public/10017685/4508285431/c6884471117013f0993ba1cab6413ea8f78b1aa1/dl.pdf }}{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.ornithomedia.com/magazine/mag_art355_2.htm Identification notes]
*[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/news/2007/march/news_10987.html Natural History Museum, London]
*[http://www.orientalbirdimages.org/search.php?action=searchresult&Bird_ID=2750 Photographs]
*[http://www.kolkatabirds.com/orinus.htm Photographs from Kolkata]
*[http://www.thaibirding.com/locations/central/lpb.htm Laem Pak Bia]
*[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070413/nation.htm News reports]
*[http://birdguide-ru.livejournal.com/tag/acrocephalus%20orinus Large-billed reed warblers icubating clutches, photos by P.V. Kvartalnov]{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:warbler, reed, large-billed}}
[[Category:Acrocephalus|large-billed reed warbler]]
[[Category:Birds of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Birds of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Birds of North India]]
[[Category:Vagrant birds of South Asia]]
[[Category:Vagrant birds of Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Lazarus taxa]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1905|large-billed reed warbler]]

Sociable lapwing

2017-03-08T12:05:29Z

Couiros22:

{{Taxobox
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22694053 |title=''Vanellus gregarius'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2013 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| image = SociablePlover.jpg
| image_caption = Sociable lapwing, Little Rann of Kutch, India
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Charadriiformes]]
| familia = [[Charadriidae]]
| genus = ''[[Vanellus]]''
| species = '''''V. gregarius'''''
| binomial = ''Vanellus gregarius''
| binomial_authority = ([[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], 1771)
| synonyms = ''Chaetusia gregaria'' (unjustified emendation) 
''Charadrius gregarius'' Pallas, 1771 
''Cheltusia gregaria'' (unjustified emendation) 
''Chettusia gregaria'' (Pallas, 1771) 
''Chetusia gregaria'' (unjustified emendation) 
''Choetusia gregaria'' (unjustified emendation)
}}

The '''sociable lapwing''' or '''sociable plover''' (''Vanellus gregarius'') is a critically endangered [[wader]] in the [[lapwing]] family of [[bird]]s. The genus name is [[Medieval Latin]] for a [[northern lapwing|lapwing]] and derives from ''vannus'' a [[Winnowing#In Greek culture|winnowing fan]]. The specific ''gregarius'' is [[Latin]] for "sociable" from ''grex, gregis'', "flock".<ref name=job>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages=178, 397}}</ref>

==Description==
This medium-sized lapwing has longish black legs and a short black bill. Summer adults have grey backs and breast, dark belly and white undertail. The head has a striking pattern, with a black crown and eyestripe, the latter being bordered above and below with white. The upper neck is ochre. Its longish black legs, white tail with a black terminal band and distinctive brown, white and grey wings make it almost unmistakable in flight. Length is {{convert|27|–|30|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The call is a harsh ''kereck''.

Winter adults have a less distinct head pattern, slightly browner back and breast, and white belly. Young birds have a scaly back and only traces of the head pattern.

[[File:Vanellus gregarius MHNT.jpg|thumb|left|Egg - [[MHNT]]]]

==Range and breeding==
This species breeds on open grassland in [[Russia]] and [[Kazakhstan]]. Three to four eggs are laid in a ground nest. These birds [[bird migration|migrate]] south through [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Armenia]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Syria]] and [[Turkey]], to key wintering sites in [[Israel]], [[Syria]], [[Eritrea]], [[Sudan]] and north-west [[India]]. Birds winter occasionally in [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Oman]]. It is a very rare vagrant in western and northern [[Europe]], where this gregarious bird is usually found with [[northern lapwing]]s. It feeds in a similar way, picking [[insect]]s and other small prey mainly from grassland or arable land.

[[File:Pîwîya bikil.jpg|thumb|left]]

==Status==
In 2004, [[BirdLife International]] categorised this bird as critically endangered, due to a very rapid population decline for poorly understood reasons. The main decline took place between 1960 and 1987, when the known population halved; it is some 20–25% of the 1930s population levels.<ref name=BirdLifeFactsheet/> The current population was estimated to be between 600 and 1,800 mature birds in 2006,<ref name=BirdLifeFactsheet/> but is being revised to the upward end of that scale, possibly more, following the discovery of the species' previously unknown main wintering grounds in [[Syria]], where 1500 birds of all ages were encountered.<ref name=BirdLife/> Additionally, in October 2007, a superflock of approximately 3,200 sociable lapwings were discovered in Turkey, according to Guven Eken, director of the Turkish Nature Association.<ref name=npr/> The current [[IUCN]] classification is '''CR A3bc'''—meaning that the population is expected to decline in the next decade or so by 80%, but based on theoretical considerations and the known [[habitat destruction]] rather than direct observation of the birds. Thus, the new discoveries might mean that as more data becomes available, the species could be downlisted to [[Endangered]].

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=BirdLife>{{cite web |title=Ornithologists "hit jackpot" on sightings of Critically Endangered bird |date=2 March 2007 |publisher=BirdLife International |url=http://www.birdlife.org/news/pr/2007/03/sociable_lapwing_discovery.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929211804/http://www.birdlife.org/news/pr/2007/03/sociable_lapwing_discovery.html |archivedate=29 September 2007 |deadurl=yes}}</ref>

<ref name=BirdLifeFactsheet>{{cite web |publisher=BirdLife International |title=Species factsheet: Sociable Lapwing ''Vanellus gregarius'' |url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/factsheet/22694053 | accessdate = 20 September 2015}}</ref>

<ref name=npr>{{cite web |title=Superflock of Endangered Birds Spotted in Turkey |publisher=National Public Radio |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15483243 |date=20 October 2007}}</ref>
}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Vanellus gregarius}}
{{wikispecies|Vanellus gregarius}}
* [http://www.oiseaux.net/oiseaux/photos/vanneau.sociable.html Sociable lapwing photos] at [http://www.oiseaux.net Oiseaux.net]
* {{Avibase|name=Vanellus gregarius}}
* {{InternetBirdCollection|sociable-lapwing-vanellus-gregarius}}
* {{VIREO|Sociable+lapwing}}
* {{IUCN_Map|22694053|Vanellus gregarius}}
* {{Xeno-canto species|Vanellus|gregarius|Sociable lapwing}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:lapwing, sociable}}
[[Category:Vanellinae|sociable lapwing]]
[[Category:Birds of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Vagrant birds of Africa]]
[[Category:Vagrant birds of Western Asia]]
[[Category:Vagrant birds of South Asia]]
[[Category:Asian migratory birds]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1771|sociable lapwing]]

Caspian gull

2017-02-16T13:23:52Z

Couiros22:

{{Redirect|Larus cachinnans|another species for which this name has been used|Yellow-legged gull}}

{{Taxobox
| name = Caspian gull
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite journal |author=[[BirdLife International]] |title=''Larus cachinnans'' |journal=[[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] |volume=2014 |page=e.T22735929A62504211 |publisher=[[IUCN]] |year=2014 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-2.RLTS.T22735929A62504211.en |accessdate=7 May 2016}}</ref>
| image = Larus cachinnans 3 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg
| image_caption = Adult Caspian gull, Poland
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Charadriiformes]]
| familia = [[Laridae]]
| genus = ''[[Larus]]''
| species = '''''L. cachinnans'''''
| binomial = ''Larus cachinnans''
| binomial_authority = [[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], 1811
}}

'''Caspian gull''' is a [[English names for organisms|name]] applied to the [[gull]] [[taxon]] ''Larus cachinnans'', a member of the [[Larus|herring gull/lesser black-backed gull complex]]. The scientific name is from [[Latin]]. ''Larus'' appears to have referred to a gull or other large seabird, and ''cachinnans'' means "laughing", from ''cachinnare'', "to laugh".<ref name=job>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher= Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages =82, 219}}</ref>

==Description==
It is a large gull at {{convert|56|–|68|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, with a {{convert|137|to|155|cm|in|abbr=on}} wingspan and a body mass of {{convert|680|–|1590|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=CRC/><ref name=Olsen/> Among standard measurements, the [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] is {{convert|38.5|to|48|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the [[Beak|bill]] is {{convert|4.6|to|6.4|cm|in|abbr=on}} and the [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] is {{convert|5.8|to|7.7|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Olsen/> The Caspian gull has a long, slender bill, accentuated by the sloping forehead. The legs, wings and neck are longer than those of the herring gull and [[yellow-legged gull]]. The eye is small and often dark, the legs vary from pale pink to a pale yellowish colour. The back and wings are a slightly darker shade of grey than the herring gull but slightly paler than the yellow-legged gull. The outermost [[remiges|primary feather]] has a large white tip and a white tongue running up the inner web.

First-winter birds have a pale head with dark streaking on the back of the neck. The underparts are pale and the back is greyish. The greater and median [[wing-coverts]] have whitish tips forming two pale lines across the wing.

==Distribution==
The Caspian gull breeds around the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Caspian Sea]]s, extending eastwards across [[Central Asia]] to north-west [[China]]. In [[Europe]] it has been spreading north and west and now breeds in [[Poland]] and eastern [[Germany]]. Some birds migrate south as far as the [[Red Sea]] and [[Persian Gulf]] while others disperse into [[Western Europe]], in countries such as [[Sweden]], Norway and Denmark or the Benelux and even North of France. Small numbers are now seen regularly in [[Great Britain|Britain]], especially in [[South-east England]], [[East Anglia]] and the [[English Midlands|Midlands]].

== Breeding ==
[[File:Larus cachinnans MWNH 0345.JPG|thumb|Eggs, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden]]]]
It typically nests on flat, low-lying ground by water unlike the yellow-legged gull which mainly nests on cliffs in areas where the two overlap. The breeding season starts from early April. Two or three eggs are laid and incubated for 27 to 31 days.

==Feeding==
They are [[scavenger]]s and [[predator]]s with a very varied diet. During the breeding season they often eat [[rodent]]s such as [[ground squirrel]]s, flying some distance into the steppes to find them.

==Classification and subspecies==
This form has a troubled taxonomic history, summarised in the [[European herring gull|herring gull]] article. The Caspian gull used to be treated as a subspecies of the herring gull but it is now treated as a full species by many authorities (e.g. the [[British Ornithologists' Union]] Records Committee). Some authorities include the yellow-legged gull (''L. michahellis'') within ''L. cachinnans'' but it is now commonly considered to be a separate species.

The '''steppe gull''' or '''Baraba gull''' (''L. (cachinnans) barabensis'') may be regarded as a subspecies of the Caspian gull or as a separate species. It is also very similar genetically to its northern neighbour, the ''taimyrensis'' race of [[Heuglin's gull]]. The steppe gull breeds in Central Asia, particularly northern [[Kazakhstan]]. Its non-breeding range is still little-known but most are thought to winter in south-west [[Asia]] from the Persian Gulf to north-west [[India]]. There are possible records of this form from [[Hong Kong]] and [[South Korea]].

The '''[[Mongolian gull]]''' (''L. (vegae/cachinnans) mongolicus'') may be classed as a subspecies of the Caspian gull, a subspecies of the [[East Siberian gull]] or as a species in its own right. It breeds in [[Mongolia]] and surrounding areas and migrates south-east in winter.

<gallery>
File:Larus cachinnans 1 young (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|Young Caspian gulls in Poland
File:Larus cachinnans 2 young (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|Juvenile
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=CRC>{{cite book |title=CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses |editor-first=John B., Jr. |editor-last=Dunning |publisher=CRC Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8493-4258-5}}</ref>
<ref name=Olsen>{{cite book |first1=Klaus Malling |last1=Olsen |first2=Hans |last2=Larsson |year=2004 |title=Gulls of North America, Europe, and Asia |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691119977}}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==

===Identification===
* {{cite journal |last1=Garner |first1=Martin |last2=Quinn |first2=David |title=Identification of Yellow-legged Gulls in Britain |year=1997 |journal=British Birds |volume=90 |url=https://www.britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V90/V90_N01_02/V90_N01_02_P025_062_A004.pdf |pages=25–62, 369–384}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bakker |first1=Theo |first2=Rudy |last2=Offereins |first3=Rik |last3=Winters |year=2000 |title=Caspian Gull identification gallery |journal=[[Birding World]] |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=60–74}} (identification article including 34 images of Caspian Gulls of various ages)
* {{cite journal |last=Jonsson |first=Lars |year=1998 |title=Yellow-legged gulls and yellow legged herring gulls in the Baltic |journal=Alula |volume=4 |issue=3/1998 |pages=74–100}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Neubauer |first1=Gregory |first2=Richard |last2=Millington |year=2000 |title=Caspian Gull identification revisited |journal=[[Birding World]] |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=462–465}} (addresses identification in juvenile plumage)
* {{Cite journal |last=Small |first=Brian |year=2001 |title=The juvenile Caspian Gull in Suffolk |journal=[[Birding World]] |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=385–387}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Gibbins |first1=Chris |first2=Brian J. |last2=Small |first3=John |last3=Sweeney |year=2010 |title=From the Rarities Committee's files: Identification of Caspian Gull, part 1: typical birds |journal=[[British Birds (magazine)|British Birds]] |volume=103 |issue=3 |pages=142–183}} (detailed identification paper, covering typical individuals)

==External links==
{{commons category|Larus cachinnans}}
{{wikispecies|Larus cachinnans}}
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~calidris/gullindex.htm Caspian Gull photos], Rudy's Gull-index
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~daarruud/lubna_index.html Gulls in Poland] incl. Caspian gull and hybrids
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~daarruud/cachinnans.html Caspian Gulls in Amsterdam]
* [http://www.berksbirds.co.uk/articles/caspiangullid.asp Identification of Caspian Gull], Berkshire Birds
* [http://www.birdskorea.org/Birds/Identification/ID_Notes/BK-ID-Steppe-Gull.shtml Steppe gull ''barabensis'' in South Korea], Birds Korea
* [http://www.iesmeulmeester.nl/fotos.php?actie=cat&cat=25 Pictures of Caspian gulls from all ages] included some hybrids and ringed Caspian gulls
* {{BirdLife|22735929|Larus cachinnans}}
* {{Avibase|name=Larus cachinnans}}
* {{IUCN_Map|22735929|Larus cachinnans}}
* {{Xeno-canto species|Larus|cachinnans|Caspian gull}}
* {{field guide birds of the world|Larus cachinnans}}
* {{ARKive}}

{{Gulls}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:gull, Caspian}}
[[Category:Larus|Caspian gull]]
[[Category:Birds of Central Asia]]
[[Category:Birds of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1811|Caspian gull]]

Pander's ground jay

2017-02-15T12:21:01Z

Couiros22:

{{Taxobox
| image = Turkestan Ground-Jay.jpg
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22705893 |title=''Podoces panderi'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| regnum = [[Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Passeriformes]]
| familia = [[Corvidae]]
| genus = ''[[Podoces]]''
| species = '''''P. panderi'''''
| binomial = ''Podoces panderi''
| binomial_authority = [[Johann Fischer von Waldheim|Fischer von Waldheim]], 1821
| synonyms = }}

The '''Pander's ground jay''',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/n-vireos.html|title=IOC World Bird Names (version 2.3)|editor=Gill, F.|editor2=D. Donsker|year=2009|accessdate=27 February 2010}}</ref> '''grey ground jay''' or '''Turkestan ground-jay''' (''Podoces panderi'') is a species of [[bird]] in the [[Corvidae|crow and jay]] family, Corvidae. It is found in central Asia, particularly [[Kazakhstan]], [[Turkmenistan]], and [[Uzbekistan]]. It is closely related to the [[Persian ground-jay]] of [[Iran]]. Its natural habitat is sandy desert with low shrub cover. It also forages around human settlements and roads.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons|Podoces panderi}}
{{Corvidae|1}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:jay, ground, Pander's}}
[[Category:Podoces|Pander's ground jay]]
[[Category:Birds of Central Asia]]
[[Category:Birds of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Birds of Turkmenistan]]
[[Category:Birds of Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1821|Pander's ground jay]]

{{Corvidae-stub}}

Terek sandpiper

2017-02-02T17:20:02Z

Couiros22:

{{Taxobox
| name = Terek sandpiper
| image = Xenus cinereus (Alnus).jpg
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22693251 |title=''Xenus cinereus'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| regnum = [[Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| subclassis = [[Neornithes]]
| infraclassis = [[Neognathae]]
| superordo = [[Neoaves]]
| ordo = [[Charadriiformes]]
| subordo = Scolopaci
| familia = [[Scolopacidae]]
| genus = '''''Xenus '''''
| genus_authority = [[Johann Jakob Kaup|Kaup]], 1829
| species = '''''X. cinereus'''''
| binomial = ''Xenus cinereus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Johann Anton Güldenstädt|Güldenstädt]], 1775)
| synonyms =
''Tringa cinerea'' 
''Tringa terek''
}}

The '''Terek sandpiper''' (''Xenus cinereus'') is a small [[bird migration|migratory]] [[Palearctic]] [[wader]] [[species]], the [[Monotypic taxon|only member]] of the [[genus]] '''''Xenus'''''. It is named after the [[Terek River]] which flows into the west of the [[Caspian Sea]], as it was first observed around this area.<ref name=Carnaby2009/> The genus name ''Xenus'' is from [[Ancient Greek]] ''xenos'' stranger, and ''cinereus'' is [[Latin]] for "ash-grey" from ''cinis, cineris'', "ashes".<ref name=job>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher= Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages=107, 411}}</ref>

==Description and systematics==
[[File:Xenus cinereus Lapland.JPG|thumb|left]]
Slightly larger than the [[common sandpiper]] at {{convert|22|–|25|cm|in|abbr=on}} length, its long upcurved bill – somewhat reminiscent of an [[avocet]]'s, but not as strongly curved – makes it very distinctive. As the scientific specific name implies, this wader has a grey back, face and breast in all [[plumage]]s; a white [[supercilium]] may appear more or less distinct. The belly is whitish and the feet yellow; the [[beak|bill]] has a yellowish base, with the rest being black.

The call is a high whistle.

Among the [[Scolopacidae]], ''Xenus'' is part of the [[Tringa|shank]]-[[Tattler (bird)|tattler]]-[[phalarope]] [[clade]] and less closely related to the [[calidrid]] sandpipers. Based on the degree of [[DNA sequence]] divergence and putative shank and phalarope [[fossil]]s from around the [[Oligocene]]/[[Miocene]] boundary some 23–22 [[million years ago]], the Terek sandpiper presumably diverged from their relatives in the [[Late Oligocene]]. Given the numerous [[basal (evolution)|basal]] fossils of the group found in [[Eurasia]] it is likely that the Terek sandpiper lineage originated there, possibly by being isolated as the remains of the [[Turgai Sea]] dried up, which happened just around this time.<ref name=Mlikovsky2002/><ref name=Paton2003/><ref name=Thomas2004/>

==Distribution and ecology==
This bird breeds near water in the [[taiga]] from [[Finland]] through northern [[Siberia]] to the [[Kolyma River]], and [[bird migration|migrate]] south in winter to tropical coasts in east Africa, south Asia and [[Australia]], usually preferring muddy areas. It is a rare vagrant in western Europe, and particularly in autumn it is sometimes seen passing through the [[Marianas]] on migration; on [[Palau]], further off its usual migration route, it is decidedly uncommon on the other hand. Almost annually and apparently more and more often in recent times, a few birds stray to [[Alaska]] and the [[Aleutian Islands|Aleutian]] and [[Pribilof Islands]]. Every few years, individual vagrants are recorded in the [[Neotropics]], where they arrive either as migrating birds from Africa, or as North American strays accompanying local waders south for winter. Such vagrants have been recorded as far south as [[Argentina]].<ref name=Wiles2004/><ref name=VanderWerf2006/><ref name=White2006/>

It feeds in a distinctive and very active way, chasing insects and other mobile prey, and sometimes then running to the water's edge to wash its catch.

It lays three or four eggs in a lined ground scrape.

The Terek sandpiper likes to associate with [[ruddy turnstone]]s (''Arenaria interpres''), smallish [[calidrid]]s, and ''[[Charadrius]]'' (but maybe not ''[[Pluvialis]]'') [[plover]]s; a vagrant bird at [[Paraty]] ([[Rio de Janeiro state]]) was noted to pair up with a [[spotted sandpiper]] (''Actitis macularius'').<ref name=White2006/> Thus it may be that the Terek sandpiper under natural conditions may mate with [[common sandpiper]] (''A. hypoleucos''), the Old World [[sister species]] of [[spotted sandpiper]] (''A. macularius''). As [[hybridisation in shorebirds]] is extremely commonplace and ''Actitis'' is among the closer relatives of the Terek sandpiper, such pairings (should they indeed occur) may produce [[hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] offspring.

This is one of the species to which the ''Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds'' ([[AEWA]]) applies. Widespread and often quite commonly seen, the Terek sandpiper is not considered a threatened species by the [[IUCN]].<ref name=BLI/>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Terek Sandpiper, Little Stint, Marsh Sandpiper, C Redshank W2 IMG 6891.jpg|Terek sandpiper ''Xenus cinereus'', [[little stint]] ''Calidris minuta'' and [[marsh sandpiper]] ''Tringa stagnatilis'' in [[Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]].
File:Xenus cinereus eating ragworm.JPG|Eating ragworm in [[Shōnai River]], [[Japan]].
File:Xenus cinereus MWNH 0248.JPG|Egg, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden]]
File:Terek Sandpiper (Xenus cinereus) (8079446567).jpg|In flight
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=BLI>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/factsheet/22693251 |publisher=BirdLife International |year=2008 |title=Species factsheet: Xenus cinereus |website=www.birdlife.org}}</ref>

<ref name=Carnaby2009>{{cite book |last=Carnaby |first=Trevor |title=Beat About the Bush Birds |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hh11gLdZyDgC&pg=PA77 |accessdate=5 June 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Jacana Media |isbn=978-1-77009-241-9 |page=77}}</ref>

<ref name=Mlikovsky2002>{{cite book |last=Mlíkovský |first=Jiří |year=2002 |title=Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe |publisher=Ninox Press |location=Prague |oclc=156629447 |url=http://www.nm.cz/download/JML-18-2002-CBE.pdf }}</ref>

<ref name=Paton2003>{{cite journal |last1=Paton |first1=Tara A. |last2=Baker |first2=Allan J. |last3=Groth |first3=J.G. |last4=Barrowclough |first4=G.F. |year=2003 |title=RAG-1 sequences resolve phylogenetic relationships within charadriiform birds |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=268–278 |doi=10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00098-8 |pmid=13678682}}</ref>

<ref name=Thomas2004>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Gavin H. |last2=Wills |first2=Matthew A. |last3=Székely |first3=Tamás |year=2004 |title=A supertree approach to shorebird phylogeny |journal=[[BMC Evolutionary Biology]] |volume=4 |page=28 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-4-28 |pmid=15329156 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.org/picrender.fcgi?artid=515296&blobtype=pdf |pmc=515296}} [http://www.pubmedcentral.org/articlerender.fcgi?artid=515296#supplementary-material-sec Supplementary Material]</ref>

<ref name=VanderWerf2006>{{cite journal |last1=VanderWerf |first1=Eric A. |last2=Wiles |first2=Gary J. |last3=Marshall |first3=Ann P. |last4=Knecht |first4=Melia |year=2006 |title=Observations of migrants and other birds in Palau, April–May 2005, including the first Micronesian record of a Richard's Pipit |journal=Micronesica |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=11–29 |url=http://www.micronesica.org/sites/default/files/2_vanderwerf-palau.pdf}}</ref>

<ref name=White2006>{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=Richard W. |last2=Lehnhausen |first2=Bud |last3=Kirwan |first3=Guy M. |year=2006 |title=The first documented record of Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus for Brazil |journal=Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=460–462 |language=English, Portuguese|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237570613_The_first_documented_record_of_Terek_Sandpiper_Xenus_cinereus_for_Brazil}}</ref>

<ref name=Wiles2004>{{cite journal |last1=Wiles |first1=Gary J. |last2=Johnson |first2=Nathan C. |last3=de Cruz |first3=Justine B. |last4=Dutson |first4=Guy |last5=Camacho |first5=Vicente A. |last6=Kepler |first6=Angela Kay |last7=Vice |first7=Daniel S. |last8=Garrett |first8=Kimball L. |last9=Kessler |first9=Curt C. |last10=Pratt |first10=H. Douglas |year=2004 |title=New and Noteworthy Bird Records for Micronesia, 1986–2003 |journal=Micronesica |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=69–96 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228788814_New_and_noteworthy_bird_records_for_Micronesia_1986-2003}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Xenus cinereus}}
{{wikispecies|Xenus cinereus}}
* [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/263.pdf Terek sandpiper species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds]
* {{Avibase|name=Xenus cinereus}}
* {{InternetBirdCollection|terek-sandpiper-xenus-cinereus}}
* {{VIREO|Terek+sandpiper}}
* {{IUCN_Map|22693251|Xenus cinereus}}
* {{Xeno-canto species|Xenus|cinereus|Terek sandpiper}}
* {{field guide birds of the world|Xenus cinereus}}
* {{ARKive}}

{{taxonbar}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:sandpiper, Terek}}
[[Category:Scolopacidae|Terek sandpiper]]
[[Category:Sandpipers|Terek sandpiper]]
[[Category:Birds of Russia]]
[[Category:Birds of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Vagrant birds of Africa]]
[[Category:Asian migratory birds]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1775|Terek sandpiper]]

Category:Birds of Kazakhstan

2016-10-13T08:48:47Z

Couiros22:

{{Commons Category|Birds of Kazakhstan}}
[[Category:Birds by country|Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Birds of Central Asia|Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Fauna of Kazakhstan]]