Kazakhstan Encyclopedia - User contributions [en]

Ural River

2017-04-20T18:06:00Z

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{{About|a river|other uses|Ural (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Ural River
| image = Ural river.jpg
| image_caption = The Ural River from a plane between [[Oral, Kazakhstan|Uralsk]] and [[Atyrau]], [[Kazakhstan]]
| source1_location = [[Ural Mountains]]
| mouth_location = [[Caspian Sea]]
| basin_countries = [[Kazakhstan]], [[Russia]]
| length = {{convert|2428|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| source1_elevation =
| discharge1_avg = {{convert|400|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
| basin_size = {{convert|231000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}
| map =Ural river basinEN.png
}}

The '''Ural''' ({{lang-ru|Урал}}, {{IPA-ru|ʊˈrɑl|pron}}) or '''Jayıq'''/'''Zhayyq''' ({{lang-ba|Яйыҡ, ''Yayıq'', يايئق}} {{IPA-ba|jɑˈjɯ̞q
|pron}}, {{lang-kk|Жайық, ''Jayıq'', جايىق}}, {{IPA-kk|ʒɑjə́q|pron}}), known as '''Yaik''' ({{lang-ru|Яик}}) before 1775, is a river flowing through [[Russia]] and [[Kazakhstan]] in [[Eurasia]]. It originates in the southern [[Ural Mountains]] and ends at the [[Caspian Sea]]. At {{convert|2428|km|mi}}, it is the third-longest river in Europe after the [[Volga River|Volga]] and the [[Danube]], and the [[List of the longest Asian rivers|18th-longest river]] in [[Asia]]. The Ural River is conventionally considered part of the boundary between the continents of Europe and Asia.

The Ural River arises near Mount Kruglaya in the Ural Mountains, flows south parallel and west of the north-flowing [[Tobol River]], through [[Magnitogorsk]], and around the southern end of the Urals, through [[Orsk]] where it turns west for about {{convert|300|km|mi}}, to [[Orenburg]], when the [[Sakmara River]] joins. From Orenburg it continues west, passing into Kazakhstan, then turning south again at [[Oral, Kazakhstan|Oral]], and meandering through a broad flat plain until it reaches the Caspian a few miles below [[Atyrau]], where it forms a fine [[River deltas#River-dominated deltas|digitate delta]] at ({{coord|46|53|N|51|37|E}}).<ref name=NASA>[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=5551 Ural River Delta, Kazakhstan] (NASA Earth Observatory)</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Urals river Bashkortostan.JPG|thumb| The bridge across the Urals in the [[Uchalinsky District]] ([[Bashkortostan]])]]
The river begins at the slopes of the Kruglaya Mountain<ref name=brit>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/619046/Ural-River Ural River], Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> of the Uraltau mountain ridge in South Ural, on the territory of the [[Uchalinsky District]] of [[Bashkortostan]]. There it has an average width of {{convert|60|to|80|m|ft}} and flows as a typical mountain river. It then falls into the Yaik Swamp and after exiting it widens up to {{convert|5|km|mi|0}}. Below [[Verkhneuralsk]], its flow is characteristic of a flatland river; there it enters [[Chelyabinsk Oblast|Chelyabinsk]] and [[Orenburg Oblast]]s. From [[Magnitogorsk]] to [[Orsk]] its banks are steep and rocky and the bottom has many rifts. After Orsk, the river abruptly turns west and flows through a {{convert|45|km|mi|adj=on}} long canyon in the Guberlinsk Mountains. After [[Uralsk]], it flows from north to south, through the territory of [[West Kazakhstan Province]] and [[Atyrau Province]] of Kazakhstan. There, the river widens and has many lakes and ducts. Near the mouth, it splits into the Yaik and Zolotoy distributaries<ref name=u1>V. A. Balkov. [http://web.archive.org/web/20070126030432/http://www.bashedu.ru/encikl/u/ural_reka.htm Ural] (in Russian). bashedu.ru</ref><ref name=bseural>{{cite web|url=http://bse.sci-lib.com/article114361.html
|language=Russian|title=Ural River|publisher=[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and forms vast wetlands. The [[Yaik]] distributary is shallow, with almost no trees on the shores, and is rich in fish; whereas [[Zolotoy]] is deeper and is navigable.<ref name=k800/> Ural River has a spectacular tree-like (or “digitate”) shape of the delta (see image). This type of delta forms naturally in the slow rivers which deliver a great deal of sediments and flow into a quiet sea.<ref name=NASA/> In the delta, {{convert|13.5|km|mi}} from the mouth of the Zolotoy distributary lies Shalyga Island, which is {{convert|2.5|km|mi}} long, with heights of {{convert|1|to|2|m|ft|0}} and maximum widths of {{convert|0.3|km|ft}}.<ref>Zonn, p. 375</ref>

The tributaries, in order going upstream, are Kushum, Derkul, Chagan, Irtek, Utva, [[Ilek River|Ilek]] (major, left), Bolshaya Chobda, Kindel, [[Sakmara River|Sakmara]] (major, right), Salmys, [[Or River|Or]] (major, left) and Suunduk.<ref name=bseural/>

The entire length of the Ural River is considered the [[Boundaries between continents|Europe-Asia boundary]] by most authoritative sources.<ref name="NatlGeoAtlas">{{Cite book|title=National Geographic Atlas of the World|edition=9th|year=2011|location=Washington, DC|publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]|isbn=978-1-4262-0633-7}} "Europe" (plate 59); "Asia" (plate 74): "A commonly accepted division between Asia and Europe ... is formed by the Ural Mountains, Ural River, Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea with its outlets, the Bosporus and Dardanelles."</ref><ref name="Factbook">{{Cite book|title=World Factbook | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aj.html |location=Washington, DC|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GDmX5XKkQCcC&pg=PT690q=ural%20river%20europe%20asia&f=false |title=Rivers of Europe |author1=Klement Tockner |author2=Urs Uehlinger |author3=Christopher T. Robinson |edition=Illustrated |publisher=Academic Press |year=2009 |ISBN=9780123694492 |chapter=18}}</ref> Rarely, the smaller, shorter [[Emba River]] is claimed as the continental boundary,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CPX2xgmVe9IC&pg=PR12|page=12|title=Encyclopedia of the languages of Europe|author=Glanville Price|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2000|isbn=0-631-22039-9}}</ref><ref>Zonn, p. 178</ref> but that pushes "Europe" much further into "Central Asian" [[Kazakhstan]]. The Ural River bridge in [[Orenburg]] is even labeled with permanent monuments carved with the word "Europe" on one side, "Asia" on the other.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.katjasdacha.com/whiterose/thoughts/orenburg/orenburg3.html|title=Orenburg bridge monument photos|work=katjasdacha.com}}</ref> Regardless, Kazakhstan has some European territory and is at times included in European political and sports organizations <ref>[http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/association=kaz/profile/index.html Progress aplenty in Kazakhstan], uefa.com</ref><ref>[http://box.sport.ua/news/53251 Why Europe plays against Asians] (in Russian). sport.ua (2008-09-10)</ref>

==Hydrography==
[[File:Ural-delta-ISS009E18679 lrg.jpg|thumb|The "bird's-foot" ("digitate") delta of the Ural in the Caspian Sea<ref name=NASA/>]]
The river is mostly fed by melting snow (60–70%); the contribution of precipitation is relatively minor.<ref name=ind/> Most of its annual discharge (65%) occurs during the spring floods, which occur in March and April near the mouth and in late April through June upstream; 30% drain during the summer and autumn and 5% in winter. During the floods, the river widens to above {{convert|10|km|mi|0}} near Uralsk and to several tens of kilometers near the mouth. Water level is highest in later April upstream and in May downstream. Its fluctuation is {{convert|3|to|4|m|0}} in the upper stream, {{convert|9|to|10|m|ft|0}} in the middle of the river and about {{convert|3|m|ft|0}} in the delta. The average water discharge is {{convert|104|m3/s|cuft/s}} near Orenburg, and {{convert|400|m3/s|cuft/s}} at the Kushum village, which is {{convert|76.5|km|mi}} from the mouth. The maximum discharge is {{convert|14000|m3/s|cuft/s}} and the minimum is {{convert|1.62|m3/s|cuft/s}}. Average turbidity is {{convert|280|g/m3}} at Orenburg and {{convert|290|g/m3}} near Kushum. The river freezes at the source in early November and in the middle and lower reaches in late November. It opens in the lower reaches in late March and in early April in the upper reaches. The ice drift is relatively short.<ref name=brit/><ref name=u1/><ref name=bseural/>

The average depth is {{convert|1|to|1.5|m|ft|0}} near the source, and it increases in the middle reaches and especially near the mouth. The density of underwater vegetation also increases from the source to the mouth, so as the richness of the fauna. The bottom in the upper stream is rocky, with pebble and sand; it changes to silt-sand and occasionally clay downstream. The basin is asymmetrical – its left side from the river is 2.1 times larger in area than the right side; however, the right side is more important for feeding the river. The density of the tributaries is 0.29 km/km2 in the right and 0.19 km/km2 in the left side of the basin. The right-side tributaries are typical mountain rivers whereas the left-side tributaries have flatland character. About {{convert|200|km|mi}} from the mouth there is a dangerous spot for shipping called Kruglovskaya prorva ({{lang-ru|Кругловская прорва}} meaning Kruglovsk abyss). Here the river narrows and creates a strong vortex over a deep pit. The climate is continental with frequent and strong winds. Typical annual precipitation is {{convert|530|mm|in}}.<ref name=k800>[http://hibaratxt.narod.ru/put_kazahstan/index02.html 800 km on Ural River] (in Russian)</ref><ref name=ind>[http://chelindustry.ru/view2.php?rr=8&idotr=70&idd=691 Ural River] chelindustry.ru (in Russian)</ref>

==Fauna==
[[File:Loeffler.jpg|thumb|Eurasian Spoonbill]]
[[File:Ellobius talpinus.jpg|thumb|Northern mole vole]]
The wetlands at and near the delta of the Ural River are especially important to migrating birds as an important stop-over along the Asian flyway.<ref name=NASA/> They host many endemic and endangered species, such as [[great white pelican]], [[Dalmatian pelican]], [[pygmy cormorant]], [[cattle egret]], [[little egret]], [[greater flamingo]], [[white-headed duck]], [[ferruginous duck]], [[Eurasian spoonbill]], [[glossy ibis]], [[houbara bustard]], [[great black-headed gull]], [[slender-billed gull]], [[squacco heron]], [[common crane]], [[demoiselle crane]], [[slender-billed curlew]], [[black stork]], [[red-breasted goose]], [[lesser white-fronted goose]], [[lesser kestrel]], [[whooper swan]], [[tundra swan]], [[osprey]], [[pallid harrier]], [[short-toed eagle]] and many others. The pygmy cormorant was observed sporadically before 1999 and more regularly after that. Cattle egret is observed since 1990 between April and September (as most other migratory birds in this area), with the total population of several dozen couples. It feeds on frogs, mollusks and small fish.<ref name=fauna>[http://web.archive.org/web/20070808143641/http://www.wetlands.kz/index.cfm?tid=19 Фауна: Дельта реки Урал и прилегающее побережье Каспийского моря]. wetlands.kz. (Fauna of the delta of Ural River, in Russian)</ref> Upstream, there are more of the stationary bird species, such as [[grouse]], wild pigeon and [[partridge]].<ref name=k800/>

Ural River is also important for many fish species of the Caspian Sea which visit its delta and migrate upstream for spawning. In the lower reaches of the river there are 47 species from 13 families. The family [[Cyprinidae]] account for 40%, sturgeon and herring make up 11%, perch and herring 9% and salmon 4.4%. The main commercial species are [[sturgeon]], [[Rutilus|roach]], [[bream]], [[perch]], [[carp]], [[Asp (fish)|asp]] and [[Wels catfish]]. The rare species include [[Caspian salmon]], [[sterlet]], white salmon and [[Caspian kutum|kutum]].

In the delta of the river and nearby regions live about 48 animal species belonging to 7 [[Order (biology)|orders]]; most common are rodents (21 species) and predators (12). Among them, [[Bobrinski's serotine]] and [[marbled polecat]] are endemic. Key species are [[raccoon dog]], [[muskrat]] (appeared recently), [[European hare]], [[house mouse]], [[brown rat]], and [[wild boar]]. Wild boars had a density of 1.2–2.5 per hectare in 2000 and are hunted commercially. Others include [[elk]], fox, wolf, [[dwarf fat-tailed jerboa]], [[great gerbil]], [[northern mole vole]] and [[saiga antelope]].<ref name=k800/><ref name=fauna/> The [[Turkmenian kulan]] (''Equus hemionus kulan'') used to live at the Ural River. It might be extinct from that region.

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right;margin-left:1em;text-align:center;"
| width="23%" | [[File:Rhombomys opimus 1.jpg|180px]]
| width="27%" | [[File:Marbled polecat.jpg|205px]]
| width="35%" | [[File:Sturgeon.jpg|238px]]
|-
| Great gerbil
| Marbled polecat
| Sturgeon
|}

The reptiles are represented by [[bog turtle]]s, [[Natrix|common water snakes]], [[Elaphe|rat snakes]] and [[sand lizard]]. Bog turtles are found in all waters. Common water snakes live on the banks of canals. Rat snakes and sand lizards are few and inhabit relatively high areas of land. Two more reptiles, [[Caspian whipsnake]] and ''[[Coluber spinalis]]'', are extremely rare. Among amphibians common are lake frog and green frog.<ref name=fauna/>

With an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 species, insects exceed all other animals of the region by diversity and biomass. Terrestrial and aquatic insects make up a significant proportion of the diet of birds. Many species are parasitic on birds and transmit infection. Other dominating inhabitants of the river are [[protozoa]], [[rotifer]]s, [[Cladocera]] and [[copepod]]s. Mollusks are mostly represented by [[gastropod]]s and [[bivalve]]s.<ref name=fauna/>

==Industry==
Water from the upper reaches of the Ural River is used to supply the prominent Magnitogorsk ([[Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works]], built in the early 1930s) and Orsk-Khalilovsk metallurgical plants, and the low reaches are used for irrigation. Two reservoirs were created near Magnitogorsk, and there is a hydroelectric plant near the village of Iriklinskaya with the corresponding reservoir. Below Uralsk, there is another reservoir and the Kushumsky channel. The river is navigated up to Uralsk and there is a port in Atyrau.<ref name=brit/><ref>Zonn, p. 45</ref> Fishery is well developed; the commercial fish species include [[sturgeon]], [[perch]], [[herring]], [[bream]], [[carp]] and [[catfish]].<ref name=bseural/> The delta of Ural River accounts for about half of the fish catchment in Kazakhstan.<ref name=fauna/> Also widespread is agriculture, especially growth of melons and watermelons. The city of [[Atyrau]] is a major oil producing center of Kazakhstan.<ref name=k800/>

==Etymology==
The river was called {{lang|grc|Δάϊκος}} (Daïkos) by [[Ptolemy]] in the 2nd century AD.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ptolemy|first1=Claudius|authorlink1=Ptolemy|editor1-last=Nobbe|editor1-first=Karl Friedrich August|title=Geographia|date=1843|publisher=Karl Tauchnitz|location=Leipzig|page=vol. 2, p. 122|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHMCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA122#v=onepage&q&f=false|language=Greek|chapter=Book VI, chapter 14. Σκυθίας τῆς ἐντὸς Ἰμάου ὄρους θέσις}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=McCrindle|first1=John Watson|title=Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy|date=1885|publisher=Thacker, Spink|location=Bombay|page=290|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3UIAAAAQAAJ&lpg=PA290&ots=pUK4HEL0aV&dq=%22Rhymmos%22&pg=PA290#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> Yulian Kulakovsky reads this as Turkic "[[Jaiyk|Jajyk]]" or "Яик" and on this basis identifies the Huns as Turkic speakers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kirsoft.com.ru/skb13/KSNews_267.htm|language=Russian|title=Chapter 2. The map of European Sarmatia|author=Yu. Kulakovsky}}</ref> However, [[Gerard Clauson]] disputes that the name could be of Turkic origin as early as the 2nd century, and instead attributes it to [[Sarmatian]] origin.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clauson|first1=Gerard|authorlink1=Gerard Clauson|title=Studies in Turkic and Mongolic Linguistics|date=2005|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=9781134430123|pages=75–76, 124|edition=rev.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O-BAgAAQBAJ}}</ref> The name Яйыҡ (Yayıq) is currently used in the [[Bashkir language]] and Жайық (Zhayıq) in Kazakhstan. In later European texts it is sometimes mentioned as ''Rhymnus fluvius''<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=scB2O7XNYlcC&pg=PA109|page=109|title=Novum lexicon geographicum: in quo universi orbis, urbes, regiones ... flumina novis & antiquis nominibus appellata, suisque distantiis descripta recensetur|author1=Philippus Ferrarius |author2=Michel-Antoine Baudrand |year=1738|language=Latin}}</ref> and in the Russian chronicle of 1140 as Yaik.<ref>{{cite book|script-title=ru:Русские летописцы и автор Слова о полку Игореве|language=Russian|author=B.A. Rybakov|publisher=Nauka|year=1972|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dIgjAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> The river was renamed Ural in the Russian language in 1775, by [[Catherine II of Russia]].

==History==
[[File:Багренье.jpg|thumb|300px|''Bagrenye'' on the Ural River. Drawing by N. F. Savichev (19th century)]]
In the 10th to 16th centuries, the city of [[Saray-Jük]] (or Saraichik, meaning "small Sarai") on the Ural River (now in Atyrau Province of Kazakhstan) was an important trade center on the [[Silk Road]]. In the 13th century, it became a stronghold of the [[Golden Horde]]. It was destroyed in 1395 by the army of [[Timur]] but then rebuilt to become the capital of [[Nogai Horde]] in the 15th and 16th centuries. It was finally reduced to a village in 1580 by the [[Ural Cossacks]].<ref name=k800/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-2ZAp-TgaSMC&pg=PA316|page=316|title=Bradt Kazakhstan|author=Paul Brummell|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|year=2008|isbn=1-84162-234-6}}</ref>

[[File:Pike-pole1.JPG|thumb|upright|The tip of an old pike pole]]
After the Russian conquest of the Ural basin in the late 16th century, the shores of the Ural became home to the [[Yaik Cossacks]]. One of their main activities was fishing for the sturgeon and related fishes (including the true sturgeon, [[starry sturgeon]], and [[beluga (sturgeon)|beluga]]) in the Ural River and the Caspian. A great variety of fishing techniques existed; the most famous of them was ''bagrenye'' ({{lang-ru|багренье}}, from ''bagor'' {{lang-ru|багор}}, meaning [[pike pole]]): spearing hibernating sturgeons in their underwater lairs in mid-winter. The ''bagrenye'' was allowed only on one day of the year. On the appointed day, a large number of Cossacks with pike poles were gathering on the shore; after a signal was given, they rushed on the ice, broke it with their poles, and speared and pulled the fish. Another fishing technique was constructing a [[weir]], known as the ''uchug'' ([[:ru:Учуг|учуг]]) across the river, to catch fish going upstream to spawn. Until 1918, an ''uchug'' was set up in the summer and autumn near Uralsk, so that the fish would not go upstream beyond the Cossacks land. While the ''uchug'' weirs were also known in the [[Volga Delta]], the ''bagrenye'' was thought to be a uniquely Ural technique.<ref>Zonn, p. 416</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OdwTAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA65
|contribution="Багренье" (''Bagrenye'', i.e. Pike-pole fishing)|page=65|language=Russian
|title=Энциклопедический лексикон (Encyclopedic lexicon)|volume=vol. 4|year=1835|place=Saint Petersburg}}</ref>

The Ural Cossacks (known originally as the Yaik Cossacks) resented the attempts by the central government to impose rules and regulations on them, and on occasions rose in rebellions. The largest rebellion, the [[Pugachev's Rebellion]] of 1773–75, involved not only the Ural, but much of south-eastern Russia, and resulted in a loss of the government control there. After its suppression, Empress Catherine issued a decree of 15 January 1775 to rename most of the places involved in the revolt, in order to erase the memory of it. Thus the Yaik River and the city of Yaitsk were renamed to the Ural River and [[Uralsk]], respectively, and the Yaik Cossacks became the Ural Cossacks.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CKcKAQAAIAAJ|title=Revoliutsionnaia i trudovaia letopis Iuzhnouralskogo kraia: 1682–1918|author1=A.I. Poterpeeva |author2=V.E. Chetin |lastauthoramp=yes |publisher=South Ural|year=1980}}</ref>
{{quote| .. для совершенного забвения сего на Яике последовавшего несчастного происшествия, реку Яик, по которой, как оное войско, так и город его название свое доныне имели, по причине той, что оная река проистекает из Уральских гор, переименовать Уралом, а потому и войско наименовать Уральским, и впредь яицким не называть, равно и Яицкому городу называться отныне Уральск.
(.. for the complete oblivion of this unfortunate event that occurred on the Yaik, the Yaik river, whose name the [Cossack] Host and the city have previously borne, shall be renamed the Ural, as the aforesaid river has its source in the Ural Mountains; therefore, the [Cossack] Host shall be named the Ural [Cossack] Host, and shall not be called the Yaik [Cossack] Host; similarly, Yaitsk City shall be henceforth called Uralsk.)}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fvqYSoRvAI4C&pg=PA416|title=The Caspian Sea Encyclopedia|author1=Zonn, Igor S. |author2=Kostianoy, Andrey |author3=Kosarev, Aleksey N. |lastauthoramp=yes |publisher=Springer|year=2010|isbn=3-642-11523-3}}

{{Kazakhstan topics}}
{{Rivers of Kazakhstan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2011}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Rivers of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Rivers of Siberia]]
[[Category:Tributaries of the Caspian Sea]]
[[Category:Rivers of Chelyabinsk Oblast]]
[[Category:Rivers of Bashkortostan]]
[[Category:Rivers of Orenburg Oblast]]
[[Category:Border rivers]]
[[Category:International rivers of Asia]]
[[Category:International rivers of Europe]]
[[Category:Ural Mountains]]
[[Category:History of Ural]]

MARPOL 73/78

2017-04-19T09:00:03Z

ClueBot NG: Reverting possible vandalism by 82.78.97.152 to version by ChaseF. Report False Positive? Thanks, ClueBot NG. (3010220) (Bot)

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}}
[[File:MARPOL 73-78 signatories.png|thumb|MARPOL 73/78 ratifying states]]
'''MARPOL''' '''73/78''' is the '''International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978'''. ("MARPOL" is short for [[marine pollution]] and 73/78 short for the years 1973 and 1978.)

MARPOL 73/78 is one of the most important international marine [[international environmental law|environmental conventions]]. It was developed by the [[International Maritime Organization]] in an effort to minimize pollution of the oceans and seas, including [[marine debris|dumping]], oil and air pollution. The objective of this convention is to preserve the marine environment in an attempt to completely eliminate pollution by oil and other harmful substances and to minimize accidental spillage of such substances.

The original '''MARPOL''' was signed on 17 February 1973, but did not come into force at the signing date. The current convention is a combination of 1973 Convention and the 1978 Protocol.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Chronology & Search|url = http://www.martinottaway.com/technical-documents/MAX1-Studies/chronology|website = MAX1 Studies|accessdate = 2015-07-15}}</ref> It entered into force on 2 October 1983. As of April 2016, 154 states, representing 98.7 per cent of the world's shipping tonnage, are state parties to the convention.<ref>http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/StatusOfConventions/Documents/status-x.xls</ref>

All ships flagged under countries that are signatories to '''MARPOL''' are subject to its requirements, regardless of where they sail and member nations are responsible for vessels registered under their respective nationalities.<ref name=crs>Copeland, Claudia. [http://www.earth-forum.com/NLE/CRSreports/08Jun/RL32450.pdf "Cruise Ship Pollution: Background, Laws and Regulations, and Key Issues"] (Order Code RL32450). [[Congressional Research Service]] (Updated 6 February 2008). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.''</ref>

==Annexes==
MARPOL is divided into Annexes according to various categories of pollutants, each of which deals with the regulation of a particular group of ship emissions.

{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|+ List of the MARPOL 73/78 Annexes
! Annex !! Title !! Entry into force<ref name="IMO">[http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/StatusOfConventions/Documents/Summary%20of%20Status%20of%20Conventions.xls Summary of Status of Conventions], www.imo.org</ref><ref name=":0" />!! No. of Contracting Parties/States<ref name="IMO"/>{{ref|Alpha|α}} !! % of the World Tonnage<ref name="IMO"/>{{ref|Beta|β}}

|-
| [[Marpol Annex I|Annex I]] ||prevention of pollution by oil & oily water || 2 October 1983 ||

|-
| Annex II ||control of pollution by noxious liquid substances in bulk || 6 April 1987

|-
| Annex III ||prevention of pollution by harmful substances carried by sea in packaged form || 1 July 1992 || 138 || 97.59

|-
| Annex IV || pollution by sewage from ships || 27 September 2003

|-
| Annex V || pollution by garbage from ships || 31 December 1988

|-
| Annex VI||Prevention of air pollution from ships || 19 May 2005 || 72 || 94.70

|-
| colspan="5" align="left" |

'''Notes'''

{| border="0"

|+

|
:{{note|Alpha|α}} As of 31 July 2013

:{{note|Beta|β}} Based on World Fleet Statistics as of 31 December 2012
|}
|}

=== Annex I ===
[[Marpol Annex I|MARPOL Annex I]] came into force on 2 October 1983 and deals with discharge of oil into the ocean environment. It incorporates the oil discharge criteria prescribed in the 1969 amendments to the 1954 [[International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil]] (OILPOL). It specifies tanker design features that are intended to minimize oil discharge into the ocean during ship operations and in case of accidents. It provides regulations with regard to treatment of engine room bilge water ([[Oily Water Separator (marine)|OWS]]) for all large commercial vessels and ballast and tank cleaning waste ([[Oil Discharge Monitoring Equipment|ODME]]). It also introduces the concept of "special sea areas (PPSE)" which are considered to be at risk to pollution by oil. Discharge of oil within them has been completely outlawed, with a few minimal exceptions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.imo.org/KnowledgeCentre/ReferencesAndArchives/HistoryofMARPOL/Documents/MARPOL%2073-78%20Brief%20History%20-%20List%20of%20amendments%20and%20how%20to%20find%20them.htm|title = MARPOL73-78: Brief history - list of amendments to date and where to find them|date = 2012|accessdate = 3 June 2015|website = MARPOL73-78: Brief history - list of amendments to date and where to find them|publisher = IMO|last = |first = }}</ref>

The first half of [[Marpol Annex I|MARPOL Annex I]] deals with engine room waste. There are various generations of technologies and equipment that have been developed to prevent waste such as: [[Oily Water Separators|Oily water separators]] (OWS), [[Oil content meter|Oil Content meters]] (OCM), and [[Port Reception Facilities]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title = International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)|url = http://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Prevention-of-Pollution-from-Ships-(MARPOL).aspx|website = www.imo.org|accessdate = 2015-07-23}}</ref>

The second part of the [[Marpol Annex I|MARPOL Annex I]] has more to do with cleaning the cargo areas and tanks. [[Oil Discharge Monitoring Equipment]] (ODME) is a very important technology mentioned in [[Marpol Annex I|MARPOL Annex I]] that has greatly helped improve sanitation in these areas.<ref name=":1" />

The [[Oil record book|Oil Record Book]] is another integral part of [[Marpol Annex I|MARPOL Annex I]]. The [[Oil record book|Oil Record Book]] helps crew members log and keep track of oily waste water discharges among other things.

=== Annex II ===
MARPOL Annex II came into force on 6 April 1987. It details the discharge criteria for the elimination of pollution by noxious liquid substances carried in large quantities. It divides substances into and introduces detailed operational standards and measures. The discharge of pollutants is allowed only to reception facilities with certain concentrations and conditions. No matter what, no discharge of residues containing pollutants is permitted within 12 miles of the nearest land. Stricter restrictions apply to "special areas".<ref name=":0" />

=== Annex III ===
MARPOL Annex III came into force on 7 July 1992. It contains general requirements for the standards on packing, marking, labeling, documentation, stowage, quantity limitations, exceptions and notifications for preventing pollution by noxious substances. The Annex is in line with the procedures detailed in the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, which has been expanded to include marine pollutants. The amendments entered into force on 1 January 1991.<ref name=":0" />

=== Annex IV ===
Marpol Annex IV came into force on 22 September 2003. It introduces requirements to control pollution of the sea by sewage from ships.<ref name=":0" />

=== Annex V ===
MARPOL Annex V came into force on 31 December 1988. It specifies the distances from land in which materials may be disposed of and subdivides different types of garbage and marine debris. The requirements are much stricter in a number of "special areas" but perhaps the most prominent part of the Annex is the complete ban of [[Ocean dumping|dumping]] plastic into the ocean.<ref name=":0" />

=== Annex VI ===
MARPOL Annex VI came into force on 19 May 2005. It introduces requirements to regulate the air pollution being emitted by ships, including the emission of ozone-depleting substances, [[NOx|Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)]], [[Sulfur_oxide|Sulphur Oxides (SOx)]], [[Volatile_organic_compound|Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)]] and shipboard incineration. It also establishes requirements for reception facilities for wastes from exhaust gas cleaning systems, incinerators, fuel oil quality, for off-shore platforms and drilling rigs and for the establishment of [[Sulphur_Emission_Control_Area|SOx Emission Control Areas (SECAs)]].<ref name=":0" />

==Amendments==

MARPOL Annex VI amendments according with [http://www.imo.org/includes/blastDataOnly.asp/data_id%3D23760/176%2858%29.pdf MEPC 176(58)] came into force 1 July 2010.

Amended [http://www.ancomaritime.com/files/Ozone_Depleting_Substances_Marpol_Regulation_12.html Regulations 12] concerns control and record keeping of Ozone Depleting Substances.

Amended [http://www.ancomaritime.com/files/Fuel_Oil_Change_over_procedures%20.html Regulation 14] concerns mandatory fuel oil change over procedures for vessels entering or leaving [[Sulphur Emission Control Area|SECA]] areas and FO sulphur limits.

==Implementation and enforcement==
In order for [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]] standards to be binding, they must first be ratified by a total number of member countries whose combined [[gross tonnage]] represents at least 50% of the world's gross tonnage, a process that can be lengthy. A system of tacit acceptance has therefore been put into place, whereby if no objections are heard from a member state after a certain period has elapsed, it is assumed they have assented to the treaty.

All six Annexes have been ratified by the requisite number of nations; the most recent is Annex VI, which took effect in May 2005. The country where a ship is registered ([[Flag State]]) is responsible for certifying the ship's compliance with MARPOL's [[pollution prevention]] standards. Each signatory nation is responsible for enacting [[municipal law|domestic laws]] to implement the convention and effectively pledges to comply with the convention, annexes, and related laws of other nations. In the United States, for example, the relevant implementation legislation is the [[Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships]].

One of the difficulties in implementing MARPOL arises from the very international nature of maritime shipping. The country that the ship visits can conduct its own examination to verify a ship's compliance with [[international standard]]s and can detain the ship if it finds significant [[regulatory compliance|noncompliance]]. When incidents occur outside such country's jurisdiction or jurisdiction cannot be determined, the country refers cases to flag states, in accordance with MARPOL. A 2000 US [[Government Accountability Office|GAO]] report documented that even when referrals have been made, the response rate from flag states has been poor<ref name="U.S. GAO, 2000 Report">{{cite journal|last1=Office|first1=U. S. Government Accountability|title=Marine Pollution: Progress Made to Reduce Marine Pollution by Cruise Ships, but Important Issues Remain|date=March 7, 2000|issue=RCED-00-48|page=20|url=http://www.gao.gov/new.items/rc00048.pdf}}</ref>.

On January 1, 2015, maritime shipping levels became legally subject to new MARPOL directives because the SECA (Sulphur Emission Controlled Areas) zone increased in size. This larger SECA zone will include the North Sea, Scandinavia, and parts of the English Channel. This area is set to include all of the Republic of Ireland's international waters in 2020 culminating in all of Western Europe's subjection to the MARPOL directive. This has proven controversial for shipping and ferry operators across Europe.

Concerns have been raised about the environmental damage moving back to the roads by some of the larger ferry operators that ship substantial amounts of freight and passenger traffic via these routes affected by IMO standards. They claim that MARPOL will drive up ferry costs for the consumer and freight forwarding companies pushing them back onto the European roadways as a financially more cost effective measure compared to increased ferry costs, thereby defeating the object of reducing water pollution.<ref name="Freightlink">[https://www.freightlink.co.uk/knowledge/articles/what-marpol-and-its-impact-freight-market What is MARPOL and its impact to the freight market?], www.freightlink.co.uk</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Crude oil washing]]
* [[International Maritime Organization]]
* [[Marine energy management]]
* [[Marine fuel management]]
* [[Merchant Shipping (Pollution) Act 2006]]
* [[Ship pollution]]
* [[Oil Pollution Act of 1990]]
* [[Marpol Annex I|MARPOL Annex I]]
* [[Oily Water Separator (marine)|Oily water separator (marine)]]
* [[Oil Content Meter|Oil content meter]]
* [[Port Reception Facilities]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|MARPOL}}
* [http://www.imo.org/about/conventions/listofconventions/pages/international-convention-for-the-prevention-of-pollution-from-ships-(marpol).aspx International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78)]
* [http://www.ecolex.org/ecolex/ledge/view/RecordDetails;DIDPFDSIjsessionid=D9BB277000DBC9205BB8C72E4AB059F6?id=TRE-000841&index=treaties Amendments to the Annex of the Protocol of 1978 relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships], Treaty available in ECOLEX-the gateway to environmental law (English)
* [https://yify.co/ YIFY Overview of Emission Control Areas]
* [http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/SpecialAreasUnderMARPOL/Pages/Default.aspx IMO Overview of Emission Control Areas]

{{Pollution}}
{{Ports and harbors}}

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Saiga antelope

2017-04-13T15:27:14Z

ClueBot NG: Reverting possible vandalism by 52.91.154.177 to version by Rjwilmsi. Report False Positive? Thanks, ClueBot NG. (3004756) (Bot)

{{redirect|Saiga|the shotgun named after the antelope|Saiga-12|the rifle|Saiga semi-automatic rifle}}
{{speciesbox
| name = Saiga antelope
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn">{{IUCN2012.2|assessor=Mallon, D.P.|year=2008|id=19832|title=Saiga tatarica|downloaded=19 December 2012}}</ref>
| image = The book of antelopes (1894) Saiga tatarica.png
| image_caption =
| parent_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1843
| taxon = Saiga tatarica
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1766)
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="Sokolov">{{cite journal|last1=Sokolov|first1=V.E.|title=''Saiga tatarica''|journal=[[Mammalian Species]]|date=1974|issue=38|pages=1–4|url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-038-01-0001.pdf|doi=10.2307/3503906}}</ref>
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|title=List
|''Antilope saiga'' [[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], 1766
|''A. scythica'' Pallas, 1766
|''Capra tatarica'' Linnaeus, 1766
|''C. sayga'' Forster, 1768
|''Cemas colus'' [[Lorenz Oken|Oken]], 1816
|''Ibex imberbis'' Gmelin, 1760
}}
| range_map = Saiga tatarica historic&current distribution.jpg
| range_map_caption = Reconstructed range (white) and current distribution of the two subspecies ''Saiga tatarica tatarica'' (green) and ''S. t. mongolica'' (red).
}}

The '''saiga antelope''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|aɪ|ɡ|ə}}, ''Saiga tatarica'') is a [[critically endangered]] [[antelope]] that originally inhabited a vast area of the [[Eurasian steppe]] zone from the foothills of the [[Carpathian Mountains]] and [[Caucasus]] into [[Dzungaria]] and [[Mongolia]].

They also lived in [[Beringia]]n [[North America]] during the [[Pleistocene]]. Today, the dominant subspecies (''S. t. tatarica'') is only found in one location in [[Russia]] (in [[Kalmykia|The Republic of Kalmykia]]) and three areas in [[Kazakhstan]] (the Ural, Ustiurt and [[Betpak-Dala]] populations). A proportion of the Ustiurt population migrates south to [[Uzbekistan]] and occasionally [[Turkmenistan]] in winter. It is extinct in [[People's Republic of China]] and southwestern Mongolia. It was hunted extensively in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]] until it became extinct in those regions in the end of the 18th century. The Mongolian subspecies (''S. t. mongolica'') is found only in western Mongolia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Saiga/mongolian Saiga (''Saiga tatarica'')| url=http://www.edgeofexistence.org/mammals/species_info.php?id=62 |work= Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered|publisher=[[Zoological Society of London]]| accessdate= 19 December 2012}}</ref>

==Taxonomy and phylogeny==
The [[scientific name]] of the saiga is ''Saiga tatarica''. It is the sole extant member of its [[Genus (biology)|genus]] and is classified under the family [[Bovidae]].<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Artiodactyla | id = 14200663 | page = 688}}</ref> This species was first [[scientific description|described]] by Swedish zoologist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in the [[12th edition of Systema Naturae|12th edition of ''Systema Naturae'']] (1766). Linnaeus gave it the name ''Capra tatarica''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Linnaeus|first1=C.|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|title=Systema Naturae: per Regna tria Natura, secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis|date=1766|page=97|edition=[[12th edition of Systema Naturae|12th]]|url=http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/137337#page/101/mode/1up}}</ref> The relation between the saiga and the [[Tibetan antelope]] (''Pantholops hodgsonii'') have long been debated. English zoologist [[Reginald Innes Pocock]] classified them under different [[subfamily|subfamilies]] in 1910. In 1945, American paleontologist [[George Gaylord Simpson]] classified both in the [[tribe (biology)|tribe]] Saigini under the same subfamily, [[Caprinae]]. Subsequent authors were not certain about the relationship between the two, till [[phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] studies in the 1990s revealed that though morphologically similar, the Tibetan antelope is closer to Caprinae while the saiga is closer to Antilopinae.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schaller|first1=G.B.|authorlink=George Schaller|title=Wildlife of the Tibetan steppe|date=1998|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago, USA|isbn=978-0-226-73652-5|pages=254–5}}</ref>

In a revision of the [[phylogeny]] of the [[tribe (biology)|tribe]] [[Antilopini]] on the basis of [[Nucleus (biology)|nuclear]] and [[mitochondria]]l data in 2013, Eva Verena Bärmann (of the [[University of Cambridge]]) and colleagues showed that the saiga is [[sister taxon|sister]] to the [[clade]] formed by the [[springbok]] (''Antidorcas marsupialis'') and the [[gerenuk]] (''Litocranius walleri'').<ref name="barmann">{{cite journal|last1=Bärmann|first1=E.V.|last2=Rössner|first2=G.E.|last3=Wörheide|first3=G.|title=A revised phylogeny of Antilopini (Bovidae, Artiodactyla) using combined mitochondrial and nuclear genes|journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |date=2013|volume=67|issue=2|pages=484–93 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2013.02.015 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gert_Woerheide/publication/236042243_A_revised_phylogeny_of_Antilopini_%28Bovidae_Artiodactyla%29_using_combined_mitochondrial_and_nuclear_genes/links/004635291dcb859531000000.pdf |pmid=23485920}}</ref> The study pointed out that the saiga and the springbok could be considerably different from the rest of the antilopines; a 2007 phylogenetic study even suggested that the two form a clade sister to the gerenuk.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marcot|first1=J.D.|editor1-last=Prothero|editor1-first=D.R.|editor2-last=Foss|editor2-first=S.E.|title=The Evolution of Artiodactyls|date=2007|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore, USA|isbn=978-0-8018-8735-2|pages=4–18|edition=Illustrated|chapter=Molecular phylogeny of terrestrial artiodactyls}}</ref> The cladogram below is based on the 2013 study.<ref name=barmann/>

{{clade | style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%;width:300px;
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Gazella]]''
|2=[[Blackbuck]]
}}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Nanger]]''
|2=''[[Eudorcas]]''
}}
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Springbok]]
|2=[[Gerenuk]]
}}
}}
}}
|2='''Saiga'''
}}}}

Two [[subspecies]] are recognised:<ref name=iucn/><ref name=MSW3/><ref name=Groves>{{cite book|last1=Groves|first1=C.|author1-link=Colin Groves|last2=Grubb|first2=P.|author2-link=Peter Grubb (zoologist)|title=Ungulate Taxonomy|date=2011|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore, USA|isbn=978-1-4214-0093-8|page=157}}</ref>
*''S. t. mongolica'' Bannikov, 1946: Also known as the Mongolian saiga. It is sometimes treated as an independent species, or as subspecies of ''S. borealis''. Confined to [[Mongolia]].
*''S. t. tartarica'' (Linnaeus, 1766): Also known as the Russian saiga. Occurs in central Asia.

==Evolution==
[[File:Saiga Antelope Skull and Taxidermy.jpg|thumb|left|Saiga antelope skull and [[taxidermy]] mount on display at the [[Museum of Osteology]].]]
Fossils of saiga, concentrated mainly in central and northern Eurasia, date back to as early as the late [[Pleistocene]] (nearly 0.1 [[Mya (unit)|Mya]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Currant|first1=A.P.|title=Late Pleistocene Saiga antelope ''Saiga tatarica'' on Mendip|journal=UBSS Proceedings|date=1987|volume=18|issue=1|pages=74–80|url=http://www.ubss.org.uk/resources/proceedings/vol18/UBSS_Proc_18_1_74-80.pdf}}</ref> An extinct species of ''Saiga'', ''S. borealis'', has been identified from the Pleistocene of northern Eurasia.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Baryshnikov|first1=G.|last2=Tikhonov|first2=A.|title=Notes on skulls of Pleistocene Saiga of Northern Eurasia|journal=Historical Biology|date=1994|volume=8|issue=1–4|pages=209–34|doi=10.1080/10292389409380478}}</ref> Fossils excavated from the Buran Kaya III site ([[Crimea]]) date back to the transition from Pleistocene to [[Holocene]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lanoë|first1=F.B.|last2=Péan|first2=S.|last3=Yanevich|first3=A.|title=Saiga antelope hunting in Crimea at the Pleistocene–Holocene transition: the site of Buran-Kaya III Layer 4|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|date=2015|volume=54|pages=270–8|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2014.12.012}}</ref> The morphology of saiga does not seem to have changed significantly since prehistoric times.<ref name=Sokolov/>

Before the Holocene, the saiga ranged from as far west as modern day England and France to as far east as northern Siberia, Alaska and probably Canada. The antelope gradually entered the Urals, though it did not colonise southern Europe. A 2010 study revealed that there has been a steep decline in the genetic variability of the saiga since the late Pleistocene-Holocene, probably due to a [[population bottleneck]].<ref name="Campos">{{cite journal|last1=Campos|first1=P.F.|last2=Kristensen|first2=T.|last3=Orlando|first3=L.|last4=Sher|first4=A.|last5=Kholodova|first5=M.V.|last6=Gotherstrom|first6=A.|last7=Hofreiter|first7=M.|last8=Drucker|first8=D.G.|last9=Kosintsev|first9=P.|last10=Tikhonov|first10=A.|last11=Baryshnikov|first11=G.F.|last12=Willerslev|first12=E.|last13=Gilbert|first13=M.T.P.|title=Ancient DNA sequences point to a large loss of mitochondrial genetic diversity in the saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) since the Pleistocene|journal=Molecular Ecology|date=2010|volume=19|issue=22|pages=4863–75|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04826.x|url=http://www.zin.ru/Labs/theriology/staff/baryshnikov/references/campos_et_al_2010.pdf|pmid=20874761}}</ref>

== Characteristics ==
The saiga stands {{Convert|61|–|81|cm|in}} at the shoulder, and weighs {{convert|26|–|69|kg|lb}}. The head-and-body length is typically between {{Convert|100|and|140|cm|in}}. A prominent feature of the saiga is the pair of closely spaced, bloated nostrils directed downward. Other facial features include the dark markings on the cheeks and the nose, and the {{convert|7|–|12|cm|in}} long ears.<ref name=Sokolov/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Burton|first1=M.|last2=Burton|first2=R.|title=International Wildlife Encyclopedia|date=2002|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7614-7282-7|pages=2217–8|edition=3rd}}</ref> During summer migrations the saigas' nose helps filter out dust kicked up by the herd and cools the animal's blood. In the winter it heats up the frigid air before it is taken to the lungs.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

The [[coat (animal)|coat]] shows seasonal changes. In summer, the coat appears yellow to red, fading toward the flanks. The Mongolian saiga can develop a sandy colour. The coat develops a pale grayish brown colour in winter, with a hint of brown on the belly and the neck. The [[Anatomical terms of location#Ventral|ventral]] parts are generally white. The hairs, that measure {{convert|18|–|30|mm|in}} long in summer, can grow as long as {{convert|40|–|70|mm|in}} in winter. This forms a {{convert|12|–|15|cm|in}} long mane on the neck. Two distinct [[moulting|moult]]s can be observed in a year–one in spring (April to May) and another in autumn (late September or early October to late November or early December). The tail measures {{convert|6|–|12|cm|in}}.<ref name=Sokolov/><ref name=Groves/>

Only males possess horns. These horns, thick and slightly translucent, are wax-coloured and show 12 to 20 pronounced rings. With a base diameter of {{convert|25|–|33|mm|in}}, the horns of the Russian saiga measure {{convert|28|–|38|cm|in}} in length; the horns of the Mongolian saiga, however, reach a maximum length of {{convert|22|cm|in}}.<ref name=Sokolov/><ref name=Groves/>

== Ecology and behaviour ==
[[File:Mongolia Saiga tatarica.jpg|thumb|left|Male saiga]]

Saigas form very large herds that graze in [[semidesert]]s, [[steppe]]s, [[grasslands]] and possibly open woodlands eating several species of plants, including some that are poisonous to other animals. They can cover long distances and swim across rivers, but they avoid steep or rugged areas. The mating season starts in November, when stags fight for the acceptance of females. The winner leads a herd of five to 50 females.{{Citation needed|date=July 2015}} In springtime, mothers come together in mass to give birth.{{r|gjunesaiga}} Two thirds of births will be twins, the remain third of births will be of a single foal.{{Citation needed|date=July 2015}}

Saiga, like the [[Mongolian gazelle]]s, are known for their extensive migrations across the steppes that allow them to escape natural calamities.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Owen-Smith|first1=N.|editor1-last=Gordon|editor1-first=I.J.|editor2-last=Prins|editor2-first=H.H.T.|title=The ecology of browsing and grazing|date=2008|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin, Germany|isbn=978-3-540-72422-3|page=163|chapter=The comparative population dynamics of browsing and grazing ungulates}}</ref>
Saiga are highly vulnerable to the [[sympatric]] [[wolf|wolves]]. Juvenile saiga are targeted by [[fox]]es, [[steppe eagle]]s, [[golden eagle]]s, dogs and [[raven]]s.<ref name=Sokolov/>

== Habitat and distribution ==
[[File:MSU V2P1a - Saiga tatarica carcass.png|thumb|Remains of saiga killed by a pair of wolves at a waterhole. Chu river valley, Kazakhstan. 3 November 1955.]]

During the [[last glacial period]], the saiga ranged from the [[British Isles]] through [[Central Asia]] and the [[Bering Strait]] into [[Alaska]] and Canada's [[Yukon]] and [[Northwest Territories]]. By the classical age they were apparently considered a characteristic animal of [[Scythia]], judging from the historian [[Strabo]]'s description of an animal called the "Kolos" that was "between the deer and ram in size" and was (understandably but wrongly) believed to drink through its nose.<ref>{{cite web| last= Strabo |title= Book VII, Chapter 4, Paragraph 8|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/7D*.html#4.7.9| work= Geography| accessdate= 19 December 2012|date=25 September 2012}}</ref>

Numerous evidence show the importance of the antelope to [[Andronovo culture]] settlements. Illustrations of saiga antelopes can be found among the [[cave painting]]s that were dated back to seventh-fifth century B.C. Moreover, saiga bones were found among the remains of other wild animals near the human settlements.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Древняя культура Центрального Казахстана|author1=А.X. Маргулан |author2=К.А. Акишев |author3=М.К. Кадырбаев |author4=А.М. Оразбаев |publisher=Наука|year=1966|isbn=|location=Алма-Ата, КазССР|pages=11, 238}}</ref> The fragmented information shows an abundance of saigas on the territory of modern [[Kazakhstan]] in the 14th-16th centuries. The migratory routes ranged throughout the country's area, especially the region between [[Volga River|Volga]] and [[Ural River|Ural]] rivers was heavily populated.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Сайгак в Казахстане|author1=В. А. Фадеев |author2=А. А. Слудский |publisher=Наука|year=1982|isbn=|location=Алма-Ата, КазССР|pages=}}</ref> The population's size remained high until the second half of the 19th century when excessive horn export began. The high price and demand for horns drove radical hunting. The number of animals decreased in all regions and the migratory routes shifted southward.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Bekenov|first=A. B.|last2=Grachev|first2=Iu. A.|last3=Milner-Gulland|first3=E. J.|date=1998-03-01|title=The ecology and management of the Saiga antelope in Kazakhstan|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2907.1998.281024.x/abstract|journal=Mammal Review|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=1–52|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2907.1998.281024.x|issn=1365-2907}}</ref>

After a rapid decline they were nearly completely exterminated in the 1920s, but they were able to recover. By 1950, two million of them were found in the steppes of the USSR. Their population fell drastically following the collapse of the USSR due to uncontrolled hunting and demand for horns in Chinese medicine. At one point, some conservation groups, such as the [[World Wildlife Fund]], encouraged the hunting of this species, as its horn was presented as an alternative to that of a [[rhinoceros]].<ref name="EllisNTB">{{cite book| last = Ellis| first = Richard| authorlink = Richard Ellis (biologist) | title = No Turning Back: The Life and Death of Animal Species| publisher = Harper Perennial | year = 2004| location = New York| isbn =0-06-055804-0| page = 210 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ekrqLJOypQC&pg=PA210 |accessdate=19 December 2012}}</ref>

Today, the populations have again shrunk enormously — as much as 95% in 15 years.<ref>{{cite web| title= Welcome to the Saiga Conservation Alliance|url=http://www.saiga-conservation.com/home.html |publisher= Saiga Conservation Alliance|accessdate=19 December 2012}}</ref> The saiga is classified as [[critically endangered]] by the IUCN. An estimated total number of 50,000 saigas survive today in [[Kalmykia]], three areas of [[Kazakhstan]] and in two isolated areas of Mongolia. Another small population in the Pre-Caspian region of Russia remains under extreme threat.<ref>{{cite web|title=Emergency appeal: saigas of the pre-Caspian region of Russia under extreme threat|url=http://www.saiga-conservation.com/news_article/items/emergency-appeal-for-the-saigas-of-the-pre-caspian-region-of-rus.html|publisher=Saiga Conservation Alliance|accessdate=19 December 2012|date=18 March 2010}}</ref>

[[Cherny Zemli Nature Reserve]] was created in Russia's [[Kalmykia]] Republic in the 1990s to protect the local saiga population. Kalmykia's president [[Kirsan Ilyumzhinov]] announced 2010 as the Year of Saiga in Kalmykia. In Kazakhstan, the number of saiga was found to be increasing, from around 21,000 at the beginning of this millennium to around 81,000 in January 2010.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} However, in May 2010, an estimated 12,000 of the 26,000 Saiga population in the [[Ural region]] of Kazakhstan have been found dead. Although the deaths are currently being ascribed to [[pasteurellosis]], an infectious disease that strikes the lungs and intestines, the underlying trigger remains to be identified.<ref>{{cite web| title= Mystery over mass antelope deaths in Kazakhstan| publisher= BBC News| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10179345|date=28 May 2010| accessdate=19 December 2012}}</ref> In May 2015, what may be the same disease broke out in three northern regions of the country.<ref>{{cite web| title= Saiga Antelope Death Toll In Kazakhstan Reaches 85,000 |url=http://www.rferl.org/content/kazakhstan-saiga-deaths-85000/27031024.html| publisher= Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty| accessdate=25 May 2015|date=22 May 2015}}</ref> As of 28 May 2015, more than 120,000 saiga antelope have been confirmed dead in the [[Betpak-Dala]] population in central Kazakhstan, representing more than a third of the global population.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.unep.org/newscentre/Default.aspx?DocumentID=26816&ArticleID=35061&l=en| title= Catastrophic Collapse of Saiga Antelopes in Central Asia |date= 28 May 2015| publisher= United Nations Environment Programme | accessdate= 5 August 2015}}</ref> By April, 2016, the saiga appear to be making a comeback, with increase of population from 31,000 to 36,000 in the Betpak-Dala area.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/21/science/saigas-kazakhstan.html?rref=collection%2Fcolumn%2FTrilobites&action=click&contentCollection=Science&module=Collection&region=Marginalia&src=me&version=column&pgtype=article siaga-kazakhstan]</ref>

Kazakhstan in November 2010 reaffirmed a ban on hunting saiga antelopes, and extended this ban until 2021, as the Central Asian nation seeks to save the endangered species.<ref>{{cite web| title= Kazakhstan extends Saiga antelope hunting ban until 2021| url= http://silkroadintelligencer.com/2011/01/19/kazakhstan-extends-saiga-antelope-hunting-ban-until-2021/|work= Silk Road Intelligencer|accessdate=19 December 2012| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110729080043/http://silkroadintelligencer.com/2011/01/19/kazakhstan-extends-saiga-antelope-hunting-ban-until-2021/|archivedate=29 July 2011|date=19 January 2011}}</ref>

The Mongolian saiga (''S. t. mongolica'') is found in a small area in western Mongolia around the [[Sharga Nature Reserve|Sharga]] and [[Mankhan Nature Reserve]]s.<ref>{{cite book| last1= Mallon| first1= David P.| title= Antelopes: Part 4 – North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia: Global Survey and Regional Action Plans| year= 2001| publisher= International Union for Conservation of Nature| isbn= 2831705940|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uFo03Nd2oj8C&pg=PA164|last2= Kingswood |first2= Steven Charles|accessdate=19 December 2012|page=164}}</ref>

Currently, only the [[Moscow Zoo]] and [[Askania-Nova]] keep saigas.<ref>{{cite web|title=Western saiga (Russian saiga)|url=http://www.zootierliste.de/en/?klasse=1&ordnung=116&familie=11609&art=1160921|publisher=Zootierliste|accessdate=19 December 2012}}</ref> [[Cologne Zoological Garden]] and [[San Diego Zoo]] had them in the past. [[Pleistocene Park]] in northern Siberia plans to introduce the species.

== Threats and conservation ==
[[File:Saigaherd.JPG|thumb|Stuffed saiga herd at [[Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences|The Museum of Zoology]], [[St. Petersburg]]]]

The horn of the saiga antelope is used in [[traditional Chinese medicine]], and can sell for as much as $150.<ref>See [[Wild Russia]]</ref> Demand for the horns has wiped out the population in China, where the saiga antelope is a [[List of endangered and protected species of China|Class I protected species]], and drives poaching and smuggling.

Under the auspices of the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), also known as the [[Bonn Convention]], [[Saiga Antelope Memorandum of Understanding|the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) Concerning Conservation, Restoration and Sustainable Use of the Saiga Antelope]] was concluded and came into effect 24 September 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=Memorandum of Understanding concerning Conservation, Restoration and Sustainable Use of the Saiga Antelope (Saiga spp)|url=http://www.cms.int/pdf/en/summary_sheets/saig.pdf|publisher=Convention on Migratory Species|date=25 September 2011|accessdate=19 December 2012}}</ref> The saiga's decline being one of the fastest population collapses of large mammals recently observed, the MoU aims to reduce current exploitation levels and restore the population status of these nomads of the Central Asian steppes.

In June 2014, Chinese customs at the Kazakh border uncovered 66 cases containing 2,351 saiga antelope horns, estimated to be worth over Y70.5 million (US$11 million).<ref>(Chinese) [http://news.163.com/14/0623/12/9VE3HSUC00014AEF.html 新疆霍尔果斯海关破获一起羚羊角走私案天山网] 2014-06-23</ref> At that price, each horn would cost over US$4,600.

In June 2015, E.J. Milner-Gulland (chair of [[Saiga Conservation Alliance]]) said, 'Anti-poaching needs to be a top priority for the Russian and Kazakh governments.'{{r|gjunesaiga}}

=== Hunting saiga ===
Saiga is a target of hunting since prehistoric ages, when hunting was an essential means to acquire food. Saiga's horns, meat, and skin have commercial value and are exported from Kazakhstan.

Saiga horn, Cornu Antelopis, is one of the main ingredients in traditional Chinese medicine that is used as an extract or powder additive to the elixirs, ointments, and drinks. Saiga horn's value is equal to [[rhinoceros horn]], whose trade was banned in 1993. Cornu Antelopis is thought to be a cheaper substitute of rare rhino horn in most TCM recipes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://programs.wcs.org/china/Wildlife/Saiga-Antelope.aspx|title=Saiga Antelope|website=programs.wcs.org|access-date=2016-05-05}}</ref> Although the hunting and trade is considered illegal, the horn products still can be found sold publicly and openly in a great variety of venues and businesses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.asianscientist.com/2012/09/topnews/chinese-tcm-cooling-drinks-endangered-saiga-antelope-horns-2012/|title=Chinese ‘Cooling Drinks’ May Contain Endangered Saiga Antelope Horns|date=2012-09-10|website=Asian Scientist Magazine {{!}} Science, Technology and Medicine News Updates From Asia|access-date=2016-05-05}}</ref>

Saiga's meat is compared to sheep's, it is considered to be nutritious and delicious. Numerous recipes for cooking the antelope's meat can be found.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://supercook.ru/zz231-05.html|title=ОХОТНИЧЬЯ КУХНЯ. САЙГАК. Рецепты БЛЮД ИЗ САЙГАКА|website=supercook.ru|access-date=2016-05-05}}</ref> In the period from 1955 to 1993 roughly 92 tonnes of meat were collected in Kazakhstan by killing more than five millions saigas.<ref name=":0" /> Both meat and by-products are sold in the country and outside of it. About 45-80 dm2 of skin can be yielded from one individual depending on its age and sex.<ref name=":0" /> The skin is used to produce suede and box calf.

=== Physical barriers ===
Agricultural advancement and human settlements kept shrinking the habitat areas of the saigas since 20th century.<ref name=":0" /> Occupants limited saiga's passage to water resources and the winter and summer habitats. The ever-changing face of steppe makes saiga search for new routes to their habitual lands. Nowadays, saiga populations' migratory routes pass five countries and different man-made constructions, such as railways, trenches, mining sites, and pipelines.<ref name=":0" /> These physical barriers limit movement of the antelopes. There are reported cases that saiga herds were trapped within the fenced area and starved to death unable to find an exit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lenta.ru/news/2012/05/02/saigak/|title=Казахстан обвинили в дезориентации сайгаков|website=lenta.ru|access-date=2016-05-05}}</ref> Starting from 2011 Kazakhstan has built more than 150 km of wire fence at the border with Uzbekistan. This fence limits seasonal migration of not only saigas but smaller animals as well.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=31182743#pos=13;-159|title=Возводимые на казахско-узбекской границе заборы могут привести к полному исчезновению сайгака в Приаралье - ПАРАГРАФ-WWW|website=online.zakon.kz|access-date=2016-05-05}}</ref> Although the concerns have been stated, the fences are still being built.

=== Climatic variability ===
Saiga is dependent on weather and affected by climate fluctuations to the high extent due to their migratory nature.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Milner-Gulland|last2=Kholodova|last3=Bekenov|last4=Bukreeva|last5=Grachev|last6=Amgalan|last7=Lushchekina|date=2001-10-24|title=Dramatic declines in saiga antelope populations|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3008.2001.00202.x/abstract|journal=Oryx|language=en|volume=35|issue=4|pages=340–345|doi=10.1046/j.1365-3008.2001.00202.x|issn=1365-3008}}</ref> Harsh winters with strong winds or high snow coverage disables feeding on the grass under the thick snow. Population size usually dramatically decreases after severe cold months.<ref name=":0" /> Recent trend in climate change leads to increasing aridity of the steppe region, thus, deficiency of the grazing pastureland. It was estimated that already more than 14% of available pastureland are considered as degraded and useless.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-01017-5_2|title=Soil Resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan: Current Status, Problems and Solutions|last=Saparov|first=Abdulla|date=2014-01-01|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=9783319010168|editor-last=Mueller|editor-first=Lothar|series=Environmental Science and Engineering|pages=61–73|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-01017-5_2|editor-last2=Saparov|editor-first2=Abdulla|editor-last3=Lischeid|editor-first3=Gunnar}}</ref> Consequently, small steppe rivers dry faster limiting water resources to large lakes and rivers, which are usually populated by human settlements.<ref name=":0" /> Moreover, high temperature in the steppe region leads to springtime floods, in which saiga calves can drown.<ref name=":0" />

Cumulatively, these facts show that existence of saiga in the [[Anthropocene]] age is highly dependent on people.

=== Mass mortalities 1980 to 2014 ===
For [[ungulate]]s mass mortalities are not uncommon. In the 1980s, there were several saiga die offs and between 2010 and 2014, there was a die off every year. It is thought that the deaths could be linked to calving aggregation, which is when they are most vulnerable.{{r|gjunesaiga}}

=== 2015-2016 epizootic ===
In May 2015, uncommonly large numbers of saiga began to die from a mysterious [[epizootic]] illness suspected to be [[pasteurellosis]].{{r|gjunesaiga}}{{r|isaiga}} Herd fatality is 100% once infected, with an estimated 40% of the species' total population already dead.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/05/27/us-kazakhstan-antelope-idUSKBN0OC1XL20150527|title= Mass deaths hit Kazakhstan's endangered Ice Age antelope species|date= May 27, 2015|website= reuters.com|publisher= [[Reuters]]|access-date= }}</ref> More than 120,000 carcasses had been found as of late May, while the estimated total population was only 250,000.{{r|wpostsaiga}}

Biologist Murat Nurushev suggested that the cause might be acute [[ruminal tympany]], whose symptoms (bloating, mouth foaming and diarrhea) had been observed in dead saiga antelopes.<ref name="informburo">{{cite web | url =http://informburo.kz/novosti/svoyu-versiyu-gibeli-saygakov-vydvinul-doktor-bionauk-rossii-i-kazahstana-5079.html|title=Свою версию гибели сайгаков выдвинул академик Нурушев|publisher=Informburo.kz|language=Russian| date=24 May 2015| accessdate =1 June 2015}}</ref> According to Nurushev, this disease occurred as a result of foraging on a large amount of easily fermenting plants ([[alfalfa]], [[clover]], [[sainfoin]]s and mixed wet green grass).<ref name="informburo"/> In May 2015, the [[United Nations]] agency which is involved in saiga conservation efforts issued a statement that the mass die-off had ended. As of June 2015, no definitive cause for the epizootic has been found.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/02/science/saiga-antelope-mystery-disease-die-off.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&module=second-column-region&region=top-news&WT.nav=top-news Saiga mystery disease]; May 29, 2015</ref>

At a scientific meeting in November 2015 in [[Tashkent]], [[Uzbekistan]], Dr. Richard A. Kock, of the [[Royal Veterinary College]] in London, reported that he and his colleagues had narrowed down the possible culprits. Climate change and stormy spring weather, they said, may have transformed harmless bacteria, carried by the saigas, into lethal pathogens.<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/03/science/more-than-half-entire-species-of-saigas-gone-in-mysterious-die-off.html</ref>

''[[Pasteurella multocida]]'', a [[Bacteria|bacterium]], was determined to be the cause of death. The bacterium occurs in the antelopes and is normally harmless; the reason for the change in behavior of the bacterium is unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/21/science/saigas-kazakhstan.html|title=Saiga Population Grows After Mysterious Epidemic|last=Yin|first=Steph|date=2016-06-20|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2016-06-26}}</ref>

The Betpak-Dala saiga population in central Kazakhstan, which had the most deaths, increased from 31,000 after the epidemic to 36,000 by April 2016.<ref name=":1" />

In late 2016 there was a large loss of the population in Mongolia. The etiology was confirmed to be [[ovine rinderpest|goat plague]] in early 2017.<ref name="promedmail-4889954">{{cite web|url=https://www.promedmail.org/post/4889954|publisher=[[ProMED-mail]]|date=9 March 2017|accessdate=9 March 2017|title=PESTE DES PETITS RUMINANTS - MONGOLIA (03): (HOVD) SAIGA ANTELOPE}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=gjunesaiga>{{cite web|last1=Nicholls|first1=Henry|title=134,000 saiga antelope dead in two weeks. What is the probable cause?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/animal-magic/2015/jun/12/134000-saiga-antelope-dead-in-two-weeks-what-is-the-probable-cause|publisher=Guardian|date=12 June 2015}}</ref>

<ref name=isaiga>{{cite web|title=Endangered saiga antelope mysteriously dying in vast numbers in Kazakhstan|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/endangered-saiga-antelope-mysteriously-dying-in-vast-numbers-in-kazakhstan-10274294.html|website=The Independent|publisher=Associated Press|date=25 May 2015}}</ref>

<ref name=wpostsaiga>{{cite web|last1=Taylor|first1=Adam|title=Kazakhstan's econological mystery|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2015/05/29/kazakhstans-ecological-mystery-why-have-over-100000-saiga-antelopes-died-in-just-a-few-weeks/?wpisrc=nl_wv&wpmm=1|website=Washington Post|publisher=Worldviews|date=29 May 2015}}</ref>

}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |author=Singh, N.J. |author2=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |date=2011 |title=Conserving a moving target: planning protection for a migratory species as its distribution changes |journal= Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=48 |pages= 35–46 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01905.x }}
* {{cite journal |author=Singh, N.J. |author2=Grachev, Iu.A. |author3=Bekenov, A.B. |author4=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |date=2010 |title=Tracking greenery in Central Asia: The migration of the saiga antelope |journal=Diversity and Distributions |volume=16 |pages=663–675 |doi=10.1111/j.1472-4642.2010.00671.x |issue=4}}
* {{cite journal |author=Singh, N.J. |author2=Grachev, Iu.A. |author3=Bekenov, A.B. |author4=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |date=2010 |title=Saiga antelope calving site selection is increasingly driven by human disturbance |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=143 |pages=1770–1779 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2010.04.026 |issue=7}}
* {{cite journal |author=Kuhl, A. |author2=Mysterud, A. |author3=Grachev, Iu.A. |author4=Bekenov, A.B. |author5=Ubushaev, B.S. |author6=Lushchekina, A.A. |author7=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |date=2009 |title=Monitoring population productivity in the saiga antelope |journal=Animal Conservation |volume=12 |pages=355–363 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00260.x |issue=4}}
* {{cite journal |author=Kuhl, A. |author2=Balinova, N. |author3=Bykova, E. |author4=Esipov, A. |author5=Arylov, Iu.A. |author6=Lushchekina, A.A. |author7=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |date=2009 |title=The role of saiga poaching in rural communities: Linkages between attitudes, socio-economic circumstances and behaviour |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=142 |pages=1442–1449 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2009.02.009 |issue=7}}
* {{cite journal |author=Kuhl, A. |author2=Mysterud, A. |author3=Erdnenov, G.I. |author4=Lushchekina, A.A. |author5=Grachev, Iu. A. |author6=Bekenov, A.B. |author7=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |date=2007 |title=The big spenders of the steppe: sex-specific maternal allocation and twinning in the saiga antelope |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |volume=274 |pages=1293–1299|doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.0038 |pmid=17341456 |issue=1615 |pmc=2176182}}.
* {{cite journal |author=Morgan, E.R. |author2=Medley, G.F. |author3=Torgerson, P.R. |author4=Shaikenov, B. |author5=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |last-author-amp=yes |date=2007 |title=Parasite transmission in a migratory multiple host system |journal=Ecological Modelling |volume=200 |pages=511–520|doi=10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2006.09.002 |issue=3–4}}
* {{cite journal |author=Kholodova, M.V. |author2=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |author3=Easton, A.J. |author4=Amgalan, L. |author5=Arylov, Iu. |author6=Bekenov, A. |author7=Grachev, Iu.A. |author8=Lushchekina, A.A. |author9=Ryder, O. |date=2006 |title=Mitochondrial DNA variation and population structure of the Critically Endangered saiga antelope Saiga tatarica |journal=Oryx |volume=40 |pages=103–107|doi=10.1017/S0030605306000135 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Morgan, E.R. |author2=Lundervold, M. |author3=Medley, G.F. |author4=Shaikenov, B.S. |author5=Torgerson, P.R. |author6=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |date=2006 |title=Assessing risks of disease transmission between wildlife and livestock: the Saiga antelope as a case study |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=131 |pages=244–254|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2006.04.012 |issue=2}}
* {{cite journal |author=Morgan, E.R. |author2=Shaikenov, B. |author3=Torgerson, P.R. |author4=Medley, G.F. |author5=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |date=2005 |title=Helminths of saiga antelopes in Kazakhstan: Implications for conservation and livestock production |journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases |volume=41 |pages=149–162 |pmid=15827221 |issue=1 |doi=10.7589/0090-3558-41.1.149}}
* {{cite journal |author=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |author2=Bukreeva, O.M. |author3=Coulson, T.N. |author4=Lushchekina, A.A. |author5=Kholodova, M.V. |author6=Bekenov, A.B. |author7=Grachev, Iu.A. |date=2003 |title=Reproductive collapse in saiga antelope harems |journal=Nature |volume=422 |page=135|issue=6928 |doi=10.1038/422135a |pmid=12634775 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Robinson, S. |author2=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |date=2003 |title=Political change and factors limiting numbers of wild and domestic ungulates in Kazakhstan |journal=Human Ecology |volume=31 |pages=87–110|doi=10.1023/A:1022834224257 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Milner-Gulland, E.J. |author2=Kholodova, M.V. |author3=Bekenov, A.B. |author4=Bukreeva, O.M. |author5=Grachev, Iu.A. |author6=Amgalan, L. |author7=Lushchekina, A.A. |date=2001 |title=Dramatic declines in saiga antelope populations |journal=Oryx |volume=35 |pages=340–345 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-3008.2001.00202.x |issue=4}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commonscat|Saiga tatarica|Saiga Antelope}}
*[http://www.cms.int/en/document/memorandum-understanding-concerning-conservation-restoration-and-sustainable-use-saiga-0 CMS Saiga Memorandum of Understanding]
*{{ARKive}}
*[http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Saiga_tatarica.html Ultimate Ungulate]
*[http://panda.org/species/saigaantelope WWF species profile: Saiga antelope]

{{Artiodactyla|R.5}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2011}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:True antelopes]]
[[Category:Megafauna of North Asia]]
[[Category:Desert fauna]]
[[Category:EDGE species]]
[[Category:Mammals of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Mammals of Mongolia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Russia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Turkmenistan]]
[[Category:Mammals of Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Megafauna of Eurasia]]
[[Category:Megafauna of North America]]
[[Category:Critically endangered animals]]
[[Category:Critically endangered biota of Asia]]
[[Category:Critically endangered biota of Europe]]
[[Category:Critically endangered fauna of North America]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1766]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]

Environmental Modification Convention

2015-11-24T17:47:03Z

ClueBot NG: Reverting possible vandalism by 204.184.214.97 to version by Good Olfactory. Report False Positive? Thanks, ClueBot NG. (2447294) (Bot)

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}
{{Infobox treaty
| name = Environmental Modification (ENMOD) Convention
| long_name = Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques
| image =ENMOD Convention parties.svg
| image_width =250px
| caption =Participation in the Environmental Modification Convention{{legend|#00aa00|Parties}}
{{legend|#eeee00|Only signed}}
{{legend|#ff1111|Non-signatory}}
| type =
| date_drafted =10 December 1976
| date_signed = 18 May 1977
| location_signed = [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]
| date_sealed =
| date_effective = 5 October 1978
| condition_effective = Ratification by 20 states
| date_expiration =
| signatories = 48
| parties = 77<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=19 June 2015|url=http://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-1&chapter=26&lang=en#6|title=Convention on the prohibition of military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques|work=United Nations}}</ref> ([[List of parties to the Environmental Modification Convention|Complete List]])
| depositor = [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]]
| language =
| languages =English, Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian, and Spanish
| website =
| wikisource = Environmental Modification Convention
}}

The '''Environmental Modification Convention''' ('''ENMOD'''), formally the '''Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques''' is an international [[treaty]] prohibiting the military or other hostile use of environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting or severe effects. It opened for signature on 18 May 1977 in [[Geneva]] and entered into force on 5 October 1978.

The Convention bans [[weather warfare]], which is the use of [[weather modification]] techniques for the purposes of inducing damage or destruction. The [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] of 2010 would also ban some forms of weather modification or geoengineering.<ref>http://www.cbd.int/cop10</ref>

Many states do not regard this as a complete ban on the use of [[herbicide]]s in warfare, such as [[Agent Orange]], but it does require case-by-case consideration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_rul_rule76 |title=Practice Relating to Rule 76. Herbicides |publisher=International Committee of the Red Cross |year=2013 |accessdate=24 August 2013}}</ref>

==Parties==
{{Main|List of parties to the Environmental Modification Convention}}
The Convention was signed by 48 states; 16 of the signatories have not ratified. As of June 2015, the Convention has 77 state parties.<ref>http://www.unog.ch</ref>

==History==
The problem of artificial modification of the environment for military or other hostile purposes was brought to the international agenda in the early 1970s. Following the US decision of July 1972 to renounce the use of climate modification techniques for hostile purposes, the 1973 resolution by the US Senate calling for an international agreement "prohibiting the use of any environmental or geophysical modification activity as a weapon of war", and an in-depth review by the Department of Defense of the military aspects of weather and other environmental modification techniques, US decided to seek agreement with the Soviet Union to explore the possibilities of an international agreement.

In July 1974, US and USSR agreed to hold bilateral discussions on measures to overcome the danger of the use of environmental modification techniques for military purposes and three subsequent rounds of discussions in 1974 and 1975. In August 1975, US and USSR tabled identical draft texts of a convention at the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament (CCD), [[Conference on Disarmament]], where intensive negotiations resulted in a modified text and understandings regarding four articles of this Convention in 1976.

The Convention was approved by [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 31/72|Resolution 31/72]] of the General Assembly of the United Nations on 10 December 1976, by 96 to 8 votes with 30 abstentions.

==Environmental Modification Technique==
Environmental Modification Technique includes any technique for changing – through the deliberate manipulation of natural processes – the dynamics, composition or structure of the earth, including its biota, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere, or of outer space.

==Structure of ENMOD==
The Convention contains ten articles and one Annex on the Consultative Committee of Experts. Integral part of the Convention are also the Understandings relating to articles I, II, III and VIII. These Understandings are not incorporated into the Convention but are part of the negotiating record and were included in the report transmitted by the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament to the United Nations General Assembly in September 1976 Report of the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament, Volume I, General Assembly Official records: Thirty-first session, Supplement No. 27 (A/31/27), New York, United Nations, 1976, pp. 91–92.<ref>The United Nations Office at Geneva. http://www.unog.ch</ref>

==See also==
* [[Arms control agreements]]
* [[Environmental agreements]]
* [[Climate engineering]]
* [[Operation Popeye]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*[http://www.unog.ch]

==External links==
* [http://www.un-documents.net/enmod.htm The text of the agreement] compiled by the NGO Committee on Education
* [http://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-1&chapter=26&lang=en Ratifications]
* [http://www.sunshine-project.org/enmod/ A Political Primer on the ENMOD Convention] from the [[Sunshine Project]].
* [http://www.unog.ch/80256EE600585943/(httpPages)/1C87969B8C841FCAC1257B11005C3E61?OpenDocument/ The United Nations Office at Geneva]

[[Category:Weather modification]]
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